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OCR A-Level Chemistry

Study notes
1.1.1 Experimental Aims and Design Fundamentals
1.1.2 Selecting Apparatus and Techniques
1.1.3 Identifying Variables and Controls
1.1.4 Evaluating Methods Against Outcomes
1.1.5 Applying Prior Chemical Knowledge
1.2.1 Using Practical Apparatus and Techniques Correctly
1.2.2 Choosing and Using Appropriate Units
1.2.3 Recording Observations and Data
1.3.1 Processing Qualitative and Quantitative Results
1.3.2 Mathematical Skills in Data Analysis
1.3.3 Significant Figures and Numerical Uncertainty
1.3.4 Graph Plotting: Axes, Scales, Quantities and Units
1.3.5 Gradients and Intercepts from Graphs
1.3.6 Interpreting Trends and Drawing Conclusions
1.4.1 Evaluating Results and Conclusions
1.4.2 Identifying Anomalies
1.4.3 Recognising Procedural Limitations
1.4.4 Precision, Accuracy and Measurement Error
1.4.5 Improving Experimental Design
1.4.6 Reliability, Repeatability and Reproducibility
2.1.1 Investigative Approaches and Independent Thinking
2.1.2 Safe and Correct Use of Equipment and Materials
2.1.3 Following Instructions and Recording Data
2.1.4 Presenting Data and Using Digital Tools
2.1.5 Research Skills and Referencing
2.1.6 Using a Wide Range of Instruments and Techniques
2.2.1 Core Measurements and Heating Methods
2.2.2 Measuring and Controlling pH
2.2.3 Volumetric Analysis and Solution Preparation
2.2.4 Separation, Purification and Reaction Setups
2.2.5 Analytical Identification Techniques
2.2.6 Electrochemical Cells, Safe Handling and Rates
3.1.1 Isotopes and Atomic Structure Basics
3.1.2 Atoms and Ions: Protons, Neutrons, Electrons
3.1.3 Relative Isotopic Mass and Relative Atomic Mass
3.1.4 Mass Spectrometry and Calculating Ar
3.1.5 Mr and Relative Formula Mass
3.2.1 Predicting Ionic Charges from the Periodic Table
3.2.2 Common Polyatomic Ions to Remember
3.2.3 Writing Formulae of Ionic Compounds
3.2.4 Balancing Equations with State Symbols
3.2.5 Ionic Equations and Spectator Ions
3.3.1 The Mole, Avogadro Constant and Key Terms
3.3.2 Empirical and Molecular Formulae
3.3.3 Hydrated Salts and Water of Crystallisation
3.3.4 Using Moles in Mass, Gases and Solutions
3.3.5 Ideal Gas Equation in SI Units
3.3.6 Stoichiometry, Yield, Atom Economy and Techniques
3.4.1 Common Acids, Alkalis and Ion Definitions
3.4.2 Strong and Weak Acids
3.4.3 Neutralisation and Salt Formation
3.4.4 Preparing a Standard Solution and Titration Technique
3.4.5 Titration Calculations
3.5.1 Assigning Oxidation Numbers
3.5.2 Using Oxidation Numbers in Names and Formulae
3.5.3 Redox in Terms of Electrons and Oxidation Numbers
3.5.4 Metals with Acids: Equations and Products
3.5.5 Interpreting and Predicting Redox Reactions
4.1.1 Electron Shells and Capacities
4.1.2 Atomic Orbitals and Their Shapes
4.1.3 Sub-Shells and Electron Counts
4.1.4 Filling Order and Hund’s Rule
4.1.5 Electron Configurations of Atoms (Z ≤ 36)
4.1.6 Electron Configurations of Ions (S- and P-block)
4.2.1 Ionic Bonding, Lattices and Properties
4.2.2 Covalent Bonding and Bond Strength
4.2.3 Molecular Shapes and Bond Angles (VSEPR)
4.2.4 Electronegativity, Polar Bonds and Dipoles
4.2.5 Intermolecular Forces: Permanent and Induced Dipoles
4.2.6 Hydrogen Bonding, Water Anomalies and Simple Lattices
5.1.1 Structure of the Periodic Table
5.1.2 Electron Configuration and Block Classification
5.1.3 First Ionisation Energy: Definition and Trends
5.1.4 Successive Ionisation Energies and Deducing Groups
5.1.5 Metallic Bonding and Giant Metallic Lattices
5.1.6 Giant Covalent Lattices and Melting Point Variations
5.2.1 s2 Configurations and Formation of 2+ Ions
5.2.2 Reactions with Oxygen
5.2.3 Reactions with Water and Dilute Acids
5.2.4 Explaining Reactivity Trends Using Ionisation Energies
5.2.5 Hydroxides, Alkalinity Trend and Uses as Bases
5.3.1 Physical Properties and Boiling-Point Trends
5.3.2 Electron Configuration and Redox Behaviour
5.3.3 Displacement Reactions and Reactivity Order
5.3.4 Explaining Halogen Reactivity Trends
5.3.5 Chlorine Disproportionation and Uses
5.3.6 Water Treatment: Benefits, Risks and Testing Halides
5.4.1 Test Sequence and Rationale
5.4.2 Test for Carbonate Ions
5.4.3 Test for Sulfate Ions
5.4.4 Tests for Halide Ions
5.4.5 Test for Ammonium Ions
6.1.1 Exothermic and Endothermic Changes; Profiles
6.1.2 Activation Energy and Energy Profiles
6.1.3 Standard Conditions, States and Key Definitions
6.1.4 Determining Enthalpy Changes Experimentally
6.1.5 Average Bond Enthalpies and Calculations
6.1.6 Hess’ Law and Enthalpy Cycles
6.2.1 Collision Theory and Concentration/Pressure Effects
6.2.2 Catalysts and Alternative Pathways
6.2.3 Catalysis and Sustainability Considerations
6.2.4 Measuring Rates: Techniques and Procedures
6.2.5 Boltzmann Distribution and Effects on Rate
6.3.1 Dynamic Equilibrium in Closed Systems
6.3.2 Le Chatelier’s Principle: Qualitative Predictions
6.3.3 Catalysts and Equilibrium Position
6.3.4 Investigating Equilibrium Changes
6.3.5 Industrial Compromises: Equilibrium and Rate
6.3.6 Equilibrium Constant KC: Expressions and Uses
7.1.1 IUPAC Nomenclature Essentials
7.1.2 Representing Organic Formulae
7.1.3 Homologous Series and General Formulae
7.1.4 Functional-Group and Structural Terms
7.1.5 Structural Isomerism
7.1.6 Bond Fission, Radicals and Curly Arrows
7.2.1 σ-bonds and Free Rotation in Alkanes
7.2.2 Shapes and Bond Angles
7.2.3 Boiling Point Trends
7.2.4 Low Reactivity Explained
7.2.5 Combustion of Alkanes
7.2.6 Radical Substitution and its Limitations
7.3.1 π-Bonds, σ-Bonds and Restricted Rotation
7.3.2 Stereoisomerism: E/Z and Cis–Trans
7.3.3 Identifying Possible Stereoisomers
7.3.4 Reactivity and Key Additions
7.3.5 Electrophiles and Electrophilic Addition
7.3.6 Polymers and Sustainability
8.1.1 Polarity, H-Bonding and Properties
8.1.2 Primary, Secondary and Tertiary
8.1.3 Combustion of Alcohols
8.1.4 Oxidation: Aldehydes, Ketones and Acids
8.1.5 Dehydration to Alkenes
8.1.6 Substitution to Haloalkanes
8.2.1 Hydrolysis with Aqueous Alkali
8.2.2 Hydrolysis with Water and AgNO3
8.2.3 Nucleophiles and Substitution Mechanism
8.2.4 Rates and Bond Enthalpy Trend
8.2.5 CFCs, Radicals and Ozone depletion
8.2.6 Environmental Considerations
8.3.1 Quickfit Apparatus and Reflux/Distillation
8.3.2 Preparation and Purification of Liquids
8.3.3 Identifying Functional Groups
8.3.4 Predicting Properties and Reactions
8.3.5 Devising Two‑Stage Routes
8.3.6 Applying a Reaction Toolkit
8.4.1 Infrared: Bond Vibrations and Peaks
8.4.2 IR, Gases and Global Warming
8.4.3 Using IR to Identify Functional Groups
8.4.4 Interpreting Unfamiliar IR Spectra
8.4.5 Mass Spectrometry: M+ and Fragments
8.4.6 Combining Data to Deduce Structures
9.1.1 Rate Terms, Orders and Rate Equations
9.1.2 Concentration–Time Graphs and Half-Life
9.1.3 Rate–Concentration Graphs and Initial Rates
9.1.4 Practical Methods for Measuring Rates
9.1.5 Rate-Determining Step and Mechanisms
9.1.6 Temperature and the Arrhenius Equation
9.2.1 Mole Fraction and Partial Pressure
9.2.2 Quantities at Equilibrium and Techniques
9.2.3 Kc and Kp Expressions
9.2.4 Calculating Kc, Kp and Units
9.2.5 Effects on Equilibrium Constants
9.2.6 Equilibrium Position and Control
9.3.1 Brønsted–Lowry Acids, Bases and Conjugates
9.3.2 Reactions of Acids with Metals and Bases
9.3.3 Ka, pKa, pH and Kw Expressions
9.3.4 pH Calculations: Strong Acids/Bases and Weak Acids
9.3.5 Limits of Weak-Acid Approximations
9.3.6 Buffers, Blood pH, Titration Curves and pH Meters
10.1.1 Defining Lattice Enthalpy and Ionic Strength
10.1.2 Born–Haber Cycles and Calculations
10.1.3 Solution and Hydration Enthalpy Definitions
10.1.4 Dissolving Cycles and Calculations
10.1.5 Trends in Lattice and Hydration Enthalpies
10.2.1 Entropy as Energy Dispersal and Disorder
10.2.2 Comparing Entropies of States and Gases
10.2.3 Calculating Entropy Change for Reactions
10.2.4 Free Energy and Feasibility
10.2.5 Kinetic Limitations of ΔG Predictions
10.3.1 Redox Terms and Balancing
10.3.2 Predicting Electron-Transfer Reactions
10.3.3 Redox Titration Techniques
10.3.4 Redox Titration Calculations
10.3.5 Standard Electrode Potentials and Cells
10.3.6 Cell Potentials, Feasibility and Limitations
10.3.7 Storage Cells and Fuel Cells
11.1.1 Electron Configurations of D-Block Elements
11.1.2 What Makes a Transition Element?
11.1.3 Characteristic Properties and Examples
11.1.4 Ligands, Complexes and Coordination
11.1.5 Stereoisomerism and Cis-Platin
11.1.6 Ligand Substitution and Haemoglobin
11.1.7 Precipitation Reactions and Complex Formation
11.1.8 Redox Interconversions and Unfamiliar Reactions
11.2.1 Tests for Common Anions
11.2.2 Tests for Ammonium and Transition-Metal Cations
12.1.1 Structure and Models of Benzene
12.1.2 Experimental Evidence for Delocalisation
12.1.3 Naming Substituted Aromatic Compounds
12.1.4 Electrophilic Substitution Reactions of Arenes
12.1.5 Mechanisms: Nitration and Halogenation
12.1.6 Phenol: Acidity, Reactivity and Directing Effects
12.2.1 Oxidation of Aldehydes
12.2.2 Nucleophilic Addition: NaBH4 Reductions
12.2.3 Nucleophilic Addition: HCN to Hydroxynitriles
12.2.4 2,4‑DNP Test for Carbonyls
12.2.5 Tollens’ Reagent and the Silver Mirror
12.3.1 Carboxylic Acids: Hydrogen Bonding and Solubility
12.3.2 Reactions with Metals and Bases
12.3.3 Making Esters: Acids and Anhydrides
12.3.4 Hydrolysis of Esters: Acid Versus Alkali
12.3.5 Preparing Acyl Chlorides from Acids
12.3.6 Using Acyl Chlorides in Synthesis
13.1.1 Basicity and Salt Formation
13.1.2 Making Aliphatic Amines from Haloalkanes
13.1.3 Making Aromatic Amines from Nitroarenes
13.2.1 α‑Amino Acid Functional Groups and Reactions
13.2.2 Primary and Secondary Amides
13.2.3 Optical Isomerism and Chiral Centres
13.3.1 Making Polyesters by Condensation
13.3.2 Making Polyamides by Condensation
13.3.3 Hydrolysing Polyesters
13.3.4 Hydrolysing Polyamides
13.3.5 Predicting Repeat Units from Monomers
13.3.6 Finding Monomers from Polymer Structure
13.4.1 Extending Carbon Chains by C–C bond Formation
13.4.2 Haloalkanes with Cyanide: Substitution Mechanism
13.4.3 Carbonyls with HCN: Addition Mechanism
13.4.4 Transforming Nitriles: Reduction to Amines
13.4.5 Transforming Nitriles: Acid Hydrolysis to Acids
13.4.6 Friedel–Crafts Alkylation and Acylation
13.5.1 Organic Preparation Techniques
13.5.2 Purifying Organic Solids
13.5.3 Identifying Functional Groups and Properties
13.5.4 Designing Multi‑Stage Synthetic Routes
14.1.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography and Rf Values
14.1.2 Gas Chromatography: Retention Times
14.1.3 Gas Chromatography: Quantification
14.1.4 Test‑Tube Reactions: Alkenes and Haloalkanes
14.1.5 Test‑Tube Reactions: Phenols and Carboxylic Acids
14.1.6 Test‑Tube Reactions: Carbonyls and Alcohols/Aldehydes
14.2.1 Carbon‑13 NMR Analysis
14.2.2 Proton NMR: Environments and Integration
14.2.3 Proton NMR: Splitting and Aromatic Protons
14.2.4 Predicting NMR Spectra
14.2.5 NMR Standards and Solvents
14.2.6 Combining Evidence to Deduce Structures

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