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OCR A-Level Physics

Study notes
1.1.1 Experimental design: apparatus, techniques, and feasibility
1.1.2 Identifying and controlling variables
1.1.3 Assessing method appropriateness
1.2.1 Using practical apparatus and techniques correctly
1.2.2 Choosing and applying appropriate units
1.2.3 Presenting observations and data
1.3.1 Processing and interpreting results
1.3.2 Applying mathematical skills to data
1.3.3 Significant figures and numerical consistency
1.3.4 Plotting and interpreting graphs
1.4.1 Evaluating results and drawing conclusions
1.4.2 Identifying anomalies
1.4.3 Recognising procedural limitations
1.4.4 Precision, accuracy, and uncertainties
1.4.5 Improving procedures and apparatus
2.1.1 Investigative approaches and problem-solving
2.1.2 Safe use of equipment, hazards, and risk management
2.1.3 Following instructions; making and recording measurements
2.1.4 Presenting data; software tools for processing and reporting
2.1.5 Research skills and reliable sources
2.1.6 Referencing and use of instruments
2.2.1 Analogue measurements and interpolation
2.2.2 Digital instruments and timing
2.2.3 Improving accuracy and measuring small distances
2.2.4 Designing and constructing DC circuits
2.2.5 Signals, oscilloscopes, and wave investigations
2.2.6 Light, ICT/data logging, and ionising radiation
3.1.1 What is a physical quantity?
3.1.2 Making sensible estimates
3.1.3 S.I. base quantities and units
3.1.4 Derived units and common examples
3.1.5 Dimensional analysis and equation homogeneity
3.1.6 Prefixes and data presentation conventions
3.2.1 Systematic and random errors
3.2.2 Precision and accuracy
3.2.3 Uncertainties: addition and subtraction
3.2.4 Uncertainties: multiplication, division, powers
3.2.5 Graphical treatment: lines and error analysis
3.3.1 Scalars and vectors: definitions and examples
3.3.2 Vector addition and subtraction
3.3.3 Resultant of two coplanar vectors
3.3.4 Resolving vectors into components
4.1.1 Defining displacement, speed, velocity and acceleration
4.1.2 Instantaneous vs average: measurements and calculations
4.1.3 Displacement–time graphs: interpreting gradients
4.1.4 Velocity–time graphs: gradients and areas
4.1.5 Estimating non‑linear areas and experimental motion analysis
4.2.1 SUVAT equations for constant acceleration
4.2.2 Investigating motion and collisions: apparatus and method
4.2.3 Free‑fall acceleration g: concept and value
4.2.4 Measuring g: trapdoor, electromagnet, and light gates
4.2.5 Reaction time, thinking distance and braking distance
4.3.1 Independent horizontal and vertical components
4.3.2 Constant velocity horizontally; constant acceleration vertically
4.3.3 Trajectory analysis and range problems
4.3.4 Assumptions and limitations of the model
5.1.1 Newton’s second law and the newton
5.1.2 Weight and gravitational force
5.1.3 Types of contact and fluid forces
5.1.4 Free‑body diagrams and resolving forces
5.1.5 Motion under constant resultant force
5.2.1 Drag as a resistive force in fluids
5.2.2 Factors affecting drag and terminal speed
5.2.3 Falling with drag in a uniform gravitational field
5.2.4 Terminal velocity: definition and features
5.2.5 Measuring terminal velocity in fluids
5.3.1 Moments of a force and the moment equation
5.3.2 Couples and torque of a couple
5.3.3 Principle of moments and applications
5.3.4 Centre of mass and centre of gravity
5.3.5 Conditions for equilibrium of forces and torques
5.4.1 Density definition and calculations
5.4.2 Pressure in solids, liquids and gases
5.4.3 Hydrostatic pressure and depth: p = ρgh
5.4.4 Upthrust and Archimedes’ principle
5.4.5 Experimental approaches to fluids and pressure
6.1.1 Work and the joule
6.1.2 Work done by a force: W = F s cosθ
6.1.3 Conservation of energy: principle and uses
6.1.4 Forms of energy and transfer pathways
6.1.5 Equivalence of energy transfer and work done
6.2.1 Kinetic energy formula and derivation
6.2.2 Gravitational potential energy: Ep = mgh
6.2.3 Energy exchange: g.p.e. and k.e.
6.2.4 Worked examples and common pitfalls
6.3.1 Power definition and the watt
6.3.2 Mechanical power from force and speed
6.3.3 Efficiency calculations and interpretation
6.3.4 Power and energy in real devices
7.1.1 Tension, compression, extension and compression definitions
7.1.2 Hooke’s law and proportionality limit
7.1.3 Force constant k and series/parallel systems
7.1.4 Force–extension graphs: features and interpretation
7.1.5 Investigating force–extension characteristics
7.2.1 Work from area under force–extension graph
7.2.2 Elastic potential energy relations
7.2.3 Stress, strain and ultimate tensile strength
7.2.4 Young modulus: definition and measurement
7.2.5 Stress–strain graphs and material behaviours
7.2.6 Elastic versus plastic deformation
8.1.1 Newton’s three laws: statements and uses
8.1.2 Momentum as a vector quantity
8.1.3 Force as rate of change of momentum
8.1.4 Impulse and force–time graphs
8.2.1 Conservation of momentum in interactions
8.2.2 One‑ and two‑dimensional collision problems
8.2.3 Elastic and inelastic collisions: definitions and energy
9.1.1 Current as rate of flow of charge (I = Q/t)
9.1.2 Coulomb and elementary charge; proton and electron charges
9.1.3 Quantisation of charge
9.1.4 Charge carriers in metals and electrolytes
9.1.5 Conventional current and electron flow
9.1.6 Kirchhoff’s first law and conservation of charge
9.2.1 Charge carriers and mean drift velocity concept
9.2.2 The continuity equation I = A n e v
9.2.3 Number density and material classification
9.2.4 Relating macroscopic current to microscopic motion
9.2.5 Comparing n across materials
9.2.6 Units and typical magnitudes
10.1.1 Standard electrical symbols
10.1.2 Drawing circuit diagrams
10.1.3 Common components overview
10.1.4 Good practice in diagramming
10.1.5 Translating between diagrams and setups
10.1.6 Symbols for variable and dependent devices
10.2.1 Potential difference and the volt
10.2.2 Electromotive force of sources
10.2.3 Distinguishing e.m.f. and p.d.
10.2.4 Energy equations W = VQ and W = EQ
10.2.5 Electron energy gain: eV = ½mv²
10.2.6 Symbols and notation clarity
10.3.1 Resistance definition and Ohm’s law
10.3.2 I–V characteristics: ohmic and non‑ohmic
10.3.3 Experimental techniques for I–V curves
10.3.4 Temperature effects and thermistors
10.3.5 LDRs and light intensity
10.3.6 Safety and measurement best practice
10.4.1 Resistivity and R = ρL/A
10.4.2 Measuring metal resistivity
10.4.3 Temperature dependence: metals vs semiconductors
10.4.5 Uncertainty and data analysis
10.4.6 Applications of resistivity
10.5.1 Power equations in circuits
10.5.2 Energy transfer over time
10.5.3 Kilowatt‑hour as an energy unit
10.5.4 Cost of energy calculations
10.5.5 Efficiency considerations
10.5.6 Environmental and consumer context
11.1.1 Kirchhoff’s second law and energy conservation
11.1.2 Applying Kirchhoff’s laws
11.1.3 Total resistance in series
11.1.4 Total resistance in parallel
11.1.5 Mixed component circuit analysis
11.1.6 Multiple sources of e.m.f.
11.2.1 Source of e.m.f. and internal resistance
11.2.2 Terminal p.d. and lost volts
11.2.3 Equations for internal resistance
11.2.4 Experimental determination of internal resistance
11.2.5 Graphical analysis methods
11.2.6 Practical considerations and safety
11.3.1 Potential divider concept and potentiometers
11.3.2 Using variable components (LDR, thermistor)
11.3.3 Potential divider equations
11.3.4 Investigating sensor circuits
11.3.5 Designing practical sensing systems
11.3.6 Limitations and loading effects
12.1.1 Progressive waves; longitudinal vs transverse
12.1.2 Key wave quantities
12.1.3 Using an oscilloscope to measure frequency
12.1.4 Time and wave equations
12.1.5 Graphing waves
12.1.6 Wave phenomena and intensity
12.2.1 EM spectrum and properties
12.2.2 Orders of magnitude of wavelengths
12.2.3 Polarisation of EM waves
12.2.4 Refraction and refractive index
12.2.5 Experimental refraction and TIR
12.2.6 Critical angle and total internal reflection
12.3.1 Principle of superposition
12.3.2 Graphical superposition methods
12.3.3 Interference, coherence, path and phase difference
12.3.4 Constructive and destructive interference
12.3.5 Two‑source interference: sound and microwaves
12.3.6 Young double‑slit and wavelength determination
12.4.1 Forming stationary waves
12.4.2 Stationary vs progressive waves
12.4.3 Nodes and antinodes
12.4.4 Patterns on strings and in tubes
12.4.5 Measuring speed of sound with resonance
12.4.6 Wavelength and harmonics
13.1.1 Photon model of electromagnetic radiation
13.1.2 Photon energy equations
13.1.3 Electronvolt as a unit of energy
13.1.4 Estimating Planck’s constant with LEDs
13.1.5 Practical LED method for h
13.1.6 Link to development of quantum ideas
13.2.1 Observing the photoelectric effect
13.2.2 One‑to‑one photon–electron interaction
13.2.3 Einstein’s photoelectric equation
13.2.4 Work function and threshold frequency
13.2.5 Intensity vs maximum kinetic energy
13.2.6 Intensity and emission rate
13.3.1 Electron diffraction evidence
13.3.2 Diffraction by polycrystalline graphite
13.3.3 de Broglie wavelength
13.3.4 Conditions for observable diffraction
13.3.5 Interpreting diffraction patterns
13.3.6 Duality across scales
14.1.1 Thermal equilibrium
14.1.2 Absolute temperature scale
14.1.3 Measuring temperature in °C and K
14.1.4 Converting between °C and K
14.2.1 Particle model: spacing, ordering, motion
14.2.2 Simple kinetic model of matter
14.2.3 Brownian motion demonstration
14.2.4 Internal energy definition
14.2.5 Absolute zero and minimum internal energy
14.2.6 Temperature and phase changes
14.3.1 Specific heat capacity and ΔE = mcΔT
14.3.2 Measuring c electrically: overview
14.3.3 Techniques for metal blocks and liquids
14.3.4 Specific latent heats and E = mL
14.3.5 Measuring latent heat electrically
14.3.6 Techniques for solids and liquids
14.4.1 Amount of substance and Avogadro constant
14.4.2 Kinetic theory assumptions
14.4.3 Pressure from molecular collisions
14.4.4 Equation of state and gas laws
14.4.5 Microscopic relation pV = (1/3)Nm⟨c²⟩
14.4.6 Boltzmann constant and internal energy
15.1.1 Radian measure
15.1.2 Period and frequency
15.1.3 Angular velocity relations
15.2.1 Perpendicular net force and circular paths
15.2.2 Constant speed and v = ωr
15.2.3 Centripetal acceleration
15.2.4 Centripetal force expressions
15.2.5 Whirling bung investigation
16.1.1 SHM quantities and phase
16.1.2 Angular frequency formulae
16.1.3 Defining equation and measurement
16.1.4 Solutions and velocity
16.1.5 Isochronous property
16.1.6 Graphical relationships
16.2.1 Energy interchange in SHM
16.2.2 Energy–displacement graphs
16.3.1 Free versus forced oscillations
16.3.2 Effects of damping
16.3.3 Resonance and natural frequency
16.3.4 Amplitude–frequency response
16.3.5 Practical examples of resonance
17.1.1 Mass generates gravitational fields
17.1.2 Modelling spherical masses as points
17.1.3 Gravitational field lines
17.1.4 Field strength definition
17.1.5 Fields as a form producing force
17.2.1 Inverse-square law of gravitation
17.2.2 Field strength around a point mass
17.2.3 Uniform field near Earth’s surface
17.3.1 Kepler’s three laws
17.3.2 Gravity supplies centripetal force
17.3.3 Orbital period–radius relation
17.3.4 Kepler’s third law generally
17.3.5 Geostationary orbits and uses
17.4.1 Gravitational potential definition
17.4.2 Potential around a point mass
17.4.3 Force–distance graphs and work
17.4.4 Gravitational potential energy
17.4.5 Escape velocity
18.1.1 Astronomical objects and systems
18.1.2 Star formation
18.1.3 Low-mass stellar evolution
18.1.4 White dwarf characteristics
18.1.5 Massive star outcomes and remnants
18.1.6 Hertzsprung–Russell diagram
18.2.1 Atomic energy levels
18.2.2 Emission lines and photon energy
18.2.3 Spectral fingerprints
18.2.4 Spectra types
18.2.5 Diffraction grating and maxima
18.2.6 Wien’s law and Stefan’s law
18.3.1 Astronomical distances and parallax
18.3.2 Cosmological principle
18.3.3 Doppler effect and shift
18.3.4 Hubble’s law and age estimate
18.3.5 Big Bang and CMB evidence
18.3.6 Evolution and composition
19.1.1 Capacitance and the farad; Q = C V.
19.1.2 Charging and discharging at the electron level.
19.1.3 Series combinations of capacitors.
19.1.4 Parallel combinations of capacitors.
19.1.5 Analysing circuits with capacitors and resistors.
19.1.6 Practical investigation of capacitors.
19.2.1 V–Q graphs and stored energy.
19.2.2 Energy equations for capacitors.
19.2.3 Capacitors as energy stores.
19.3.1 Charge/discharge through a resistor.
19.3.2 Measuring capacitor transients.
19.3.3 Time constant τ = RC.
19.3.4 Exponential equations and ln plots.
19.3.5 Graphical and spreadsheet modelling.
19.3.6 Exponential decay properties.
20.1.1 Charges create electric fields.
20.1.2 Spherical charge as a point model.
20.1.3 Field lines and mapping fields.
20.1.4 Electric field strength definition.
20.2.1 Force between point charges
20.2.2 Field strength of a point charge
20.2.3 Comparing electric and gravitational fields
20.2.4 Electric fields as a force field
20.3.1 Field strength in uniform fields
20.3.2 Parallel plate capacitor and permittivity
20.3.3 Motion of charges in uniform fields
20.4.1 Definition of electric potential
20.4.2 Potential of a point charge
20.4.3 Capacitance of an isolated sphere
20.4.4 Force–distance graphs and work
20.4.5 Electric potential energy
21.1.1 Sources of magnetic fields
21.1.2 Field lines and mapping
21.1.3 Field patterns for conductors and coils
21.1.4 Fleming’s left‑hand rule
21.1.5 Force on a current‑carrying wire
21.1.6 Magnetic flux density and units
21.2.1 Force on a moving charge
21.2.2 Circular motion in magnetic fields
21.2.3 Crossed E and B fields
21.3.1 Magnetic flux and linkage
21.3.2 Faraday’s and Lenz’s laws
21.3.3 Induced e.m.f. and rate of change
21.3.4 Measuring flux with search coils
21.3.5 Simple a.c. generator
21.3.6 Transformers and investigations
22.1.1 Rutherford scattering and the nucleus
22.1.2 Simple nuclear model
22.1.3 Relative sizes: atom and nucleus
22.1.4 Nuclear notation and numbers
22.1.5 Strong nuclear force and range
22.1.6 Nuclear radius and density
22.2.1 Particles and antiparticles
22.2.2 Hadrons and leptons
22.2.3 Quark model basics
22.2.4 Proton and neutron quark content
22.2.5 Quark charges
22.2.6 Beta decays and quark changes
22.3.1 Random and spontaneous decay
22.3.2 Radiations and absorption experiments
22.3.3 Decay equations and activity
22.3.4 Half-life and measurement
22.3.5 Exponential decay relations
22.3.6 Graphical modelling and dating
22.4.1 Mass–energy and reaction energy
22.4.2 Creation and annihilation
22.4.3 Mass defect and binding energy
22.4.4 Binding energy curves and calculations
22.4.5 Induced fission and reactors
22.4.6 Impacts, fusion conditions, balancing
23.1.1 X-ray tube structure
23.1.2 Production of X-rays
23.1.3 X-ray attenuation mechanisms
23.1.4 Attenuation equation
23.1.5 Contrast media
23.1.6 CAT scanning and advantages
23.2.1 Medical tracers
23.2.2 Gamma camera components and images
23.2.3 Diagnosis using gamma camera
23.2.4 PET scanner physics and imaging
23.2.5 Diagnosis using PET
23.3.1 Ultrasound definition
23.3.2 Piezoelectric transducers
23.3.3 A‑scan and B‑scan modes
23.3.4 Acoustic impedance
23.3.5 Reflection and coupling
23.3.6 Doppler ultrasound

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