Skinner's operant conditioning fundamentally differs from classical conditioning in its focus on the consequences of behavior as a means of learning, rather than the association between two stimuli. Classical conditioning, as demonstrated by Ivan Pavlov, involves learning through association, where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a significant stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response. For example, a dog learns to salivate at the sound of a bell if the bell has been repeatedly associated with the presentation of food. In contrast, operant conditioning, as proposed by Skinner, is based on the principle that behaviors are influenced by their consequences. Positive consequences, or reinforcements, tend to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated, while negative consequences, or punishments, decrease its likelihood. Operant conditioning involves active behavior that operates on the environment, whereas classical conditioning involves passive learning through association. Skinner's theory emphasizes the role of reinforcement schedules in shaping complex behaviors, highlighting the importance of the timing and predictability of reinforcements in determining the strength and rate of the learned response.

Shaping is a crucial technique in operant conditioning that involves reinforcing successive approximations of a target behavior until the desired behavior is achieved. This method is particularly useful when teaching new behaviors that are not likely to occur spontaneously. By rewarding each small step that is closer to the desired behavior, the individual is gradually guided towards the final goal. For example, if a teacher wants to encourage a student to participate more in class, they might start by reinforcing any small sign of engagement, such as making eye contact or nodding in agreement. Gradually, the teacher would require more substantial forms of participation for reinforcement, such as speaking up or answering questions, until the student regularly contributes to class discussions. Shaping is effective because it provides a structured approach to learning complex behaviors, breaking them down into manageable steps that can be reinforced individually, thereby making the learning process less daunting and more achievable.

In operant conditioning, negative reinforcement and punishment are two distinct concepts that are often confused due to their use of negative stimuli. Negative reinforcement involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. It is a process that strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an undesirable experience. For example, buckling a seatbelt to stop the car's alarm sound is an instance of negative reinforcement; the annoying sound is removed, thereby increasing the likelihood of buckling the seatbelt in the future.

Punishment, on the other hand, aims to decrease the likelihood of a behavior by introducing an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant one following the behavior. For example, a child touching a hot stove and experiencing pain (positive punishment) or losing video game privileges for not completing homework (negative punishment). Unlike negative reinforcement, which increases desirable behavior by removing negative stimuli, punishment attempts to weaken or eliminate undesirable behaviors through the application or removal of stimuli.

A token economy is a form of behavior modification based on the principles of operant conditioning, particularly reinforcement. In a token economy system, desirable behaviors are reinforced with tokens, which can be exchanged for various rewards or privileges. These tokens serve as a form of secondary reinforcement; they are not inherently valuable but represent the promise of a tangible reward. This system is used in diverse settings, including classrooms, psychiatric hospitals, and rehabilitation centers, to encourage positive behavior and discourage negative behavior.

The application of a token economy involves several steps: identifying the target behaviors, establishing the token system (what constitutes a token and how many are awarded for different behaviors), and determining the menu of rewards that tokens can be exchanged for. It's crucial that the rewards are desirable to the participants and that the tokens are awarded consistently and immediately following the desired behaviors to reinforce the connection between the behavior and the reward. Over time, the token economy can help shape complex behavior patterns by reinforcing small steps toward the desired behavior, promoting a gradual change in the individual's actions.

While operant conditioning is a powerful tool for understanding and modifying behavior, it has limitations and cannot explain all aspects of human behavior. One of the primary criticisms is that it largely ignores the role of internal mental states and cognitive processes in shaping behavior. Human behavior is influenced not only by external stimuli and consequences but also by thoughts, beliefs, emotions, and other internal factors that operant conditioning does not adequately address.

Furthermore, operant conditioning focuses on observable behaviors, which means it may overlook the complexities of human behavior that are not readily observable, such as reasoning and decision-making processes. Additionally, cultural, social, and biological factors also play significant roles in human behavior, which operant conditioning does not fully incorporate.

Despite these limitations, operant conditioning remains a valuable framework for understanding certain aspects of behavior, particularly in contexts where behavior is shaped by clear consequences. It is widely used in clinical settings, education, and behavior therapy to effect positive behavioral changes. However, for a more comprehensive understanding of human behavior, operant conditioning is often integrated with other psychological theories and approaches that consider cognitive and biological perspectives.