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AP Human Geography

Study Notes
1.1.1 Reference Maps vs. Thematic Maps
1.1.2 Spatial Patterns and Relationships on Maps
1.1.3 Map Projections, Selectivity, and Distortion
1.2.1 Field Data Collection
1.2.2 Geospatial Technologies (GIS, GPS, Remote Sensing)
1.2.3 Written and Qualitative Sources of Spatial Information
1.3.1 Key Data Sources: Census Data and Satellite Imagery
1.3.2 Using Geographic Data for Decisions at All Scales
1.4.1 Absolute and Relative Location
1.4.2 Space and Place
1.4.3 Flows and Distance Decay
1.4.4 Time–Space Compression and Spatial Patterns
1.5.1 Sustainability and the Nature–Society Relationship
1.5.2 Natural Resources and Land Use
1.5.3 Environmental Determinism and Possibilism
1.6.1 Levels of Scale: Global, Regional, National, Local
1.6.2 What Scale Reveals: Variation and Interpretation
1.7.1 What Makes a Region?
1.7.2 Formal Regions
1.7.3 Functional and Perceptual Regions
1.7.4 Regional Boundaries and Applying Regional Analysis
2.1.1 Factors Shaping Where People Live
2.1.2 Population Distribution at Different Scales
2.1.3 Calculating Population Density
2.1.4 Interpreting Density and Land Pressure
2.2.1 Impacts on Society and Services
2.2.2 Environmental Impacts and Carrying Capacity
2.3.1 Age Structure Patterns
2.3.2 Sex Ratio Patterns
2.3.3 Population Pyramids: Reading and Uses
2.4.1 Components of Population Change
2.4.2 Measuring Growth: RNI and Doubling Time
2.4.3 Trends in Growth and Decline Over Time
2.4.4 Social, Political, and Economic Influences
2.5.1 Demographic Transition Model Overview
2.5.2 Using the DTM to Explain Change
2.5.3 Epidemiological Transition and Death Rates
2.6.1 Malthusian Theory and Resource Limits
2.6.2 Critiques of Malthusian Theory
2.7.1 Why Governments Use Population Policies
2.7.2 Pronatalist and Antinatalist Policies
2.7.3 Immigration Policies and Demographic Change
2.8.1 Education, Health, and Fertility Decline
2.8.2 Changing Roles of Women and Demographic Outcomes
2.8.3 Women, Migration, and Ravenstein’s Laws
2.9.1 What Causes Population Aging?
2.9.2 Dependency Ratio and Measuring Aging
2.9.3 Consequences of an Aging Population
2.10.1 Push and Pull Factors
2.10.2 Intervening Obstacles and Opportunities
2.10.3 Classifying Migration Causes
2.11.1 Defining Forced vs. Voluntary Migration
2.11.2 Forced Migration: Slavery, Refugees, IDPs, Asylum Seekers
2.11.3 Voluntary Migration Types
2.11.4 Migration Networks: Chain and Step Migration
2.12.1 Economic Effects of Migration
2.12.2 Cultural Effects of Migration
2.12.3 Political Effects of Migration
3.1.1 What Culture Is in Human Geography
3.1.2 Cultural Traits and Examples
3.1.3 Cultural Relativism vs. Ethnocentrism
3.1.4 Why Culture Varies by Place
3.2.1 Defining a Cultural Landscape
3.2.2 What Cultural Landscapes Include
3.2.3 Sequent Occupancy and Change Over Time
3.2.4 Culture, Identity, and the Use of Space
3.2.5 Ethnicity, Gender, and Spatial Patterns
3.3.1 Mapping Regional Cultural Patterns
3.3.2 Sense of Place and Placemaking
3.3.3 Cultural Patterns and the Global Cultural Landscape
3.3.4 Centripetal and Centrifugal Cultural Forces
3.4.1 What Diffusion Means
3.4.2 Relocation Diffusion
3.4.3 Expansion Diffusion
3.4.4 Contagious, Hierarchical, and Stimulus Diffusion
3.5.1 Historical Processes Shaping Culture Today
3.5.2 Colonialism, Imperialism, and Trade
3.5.3 Creolization and New Cultural Expression
3.5.4 Lingua Franca and Communication
3.6.1 Culture as Socially Constructed and Changing
3.6.2 Urbanization and Globalization as Drivers
3.6.3 The Internet and Time-Space Convergence
3.6.4 Convergence, Divergence, and Language Change
3.7.1 Cultural Hearths and Origins
3.7.2 Language Families and Indo-European
3.7.3 Religion and Place of Origin
3.7.4 Beliefs, Practices, and Diffusion Patterns
3.7.5 Universalizing Religions and Diffusion
3.7.6 Ethnic Religions and Spatial Distribution
3.7.7 How We Represent Diffusion Visually
3.7.8 Diffusion Beyond Language and Religion
3.8.1 How Diffusion Changes Cultural Landscapes
3.8.2 Acculturation
3.8.3 Assimilation
3.8.4 Syncretism
3.8.5 Multiculturalism
4.1.1 Independent States and the World Political Map
4.1.2 Nations, Nation-States, and Multistate Nations
4.1.3 Stateless Nations, Multinational States, and Autonomous Regions
4.2.1 Sovereignty and the Nation-State System
4.2.2 Self-Determination and Boundary Change
4.2.3 Colonialism and Imperialism in Modern Borders
4.2.4 Independence Movements and Devolution Along National Lines
4.3.1 Political Power as Control of People, Land, and Resources
4.3.2 Neocolonialism, Shatterbelts, and Choke Points
4.3.3 Territoriality, Identity, and Economic Systems
4.4.1 Boundary Types: Relic, Antecedent, and Subsequent
4.4.2 Boundary Types: Superimposed and Geometric
4.4.3 Boundary Types: Consequent
4.5.1 How Boundaries Are Created and Why They Are Contested
4.5.2 Boundaries and Cultural, National, or Economic Divisions
4.5.3 Land and Maritime Boundaries, Identity, and Resource Disputes
4.5.4 UNCLOS and Maritime Zones
4.6.1 Voting Districts and Representation
4.6.2 Redistricting and Scale Effects
4.6.3 Gerrymandering and Election Outcomes
4.7.1 Unitary States: Centralized Governance
4.7.2 Federal States: Shared and Dispersed Power
4.7.3 How Governance Shapes Spatial Organization
4.8.1 Physical Geography and the Division of Groups
4.8.2 Ethnic Separatism and Ethnic Cleansing
4.8.3 Terrorism, Economic and Social Problems, and Irredentism
4.9.1 Devolution Through Fragmentation and Disintegration
4.9.2 Communication Technology and Political Change
4.9.3 Why Supranationalism Expands
4.9.4 Supranational Organizations and Limits on State Action
4.10.1 Centrifugal Forces and State Weakening
4.10.2 Centripetal Forces and State Cohesion
5.1.1 Physical Environment, Climate, and Farming Choices
5.1.2 Intensive Agriculture Systems
5.1.3 Extensive Agriculture Systems
5.2.1 How Agriculture Shapes Rural Land-Use Patterns
5.2.2 Rural Settlement Patterns: Clustered, Dispersed, and Linear
5.2.3 Survey Systems: Metes and Bounds, Township and Range, and Long Lot
5.3.1 Hearths of Domestication of Plants and Animals
5.3.2 Global Diffusion of Crops and Livestock
5.4.1 New Technology and Increased Food Production
5.4.2 Impacts on Diet, Life Expectancy, and Industrial Labor
5.5.1 Defining Features of the Green Revolution
5.5.2 Human and Environmental Consequences
5.6.1 Subsistence and Commercial Production Regions
5.6.2 Land Costs, Bid-Rent, and Farming Intensity
5.7.1 Farm Consolidation and Changing Farm Size
5.7.2 Commodity Chains Linking Producers and Consumers
5.7.3 Technology, Economies of Scale, and Carrying Capacity
5.8.1 Transportation Costs, Distance, and Land-Use Rings
5.8.2 Why Real-World Farming May Not Fit the Model
5.9.1 Global Agricultural Supply Chains
5.9.2 Export Commodities and National Dependency
5.9.3 Food Distribution Networks and Global Trade
5.10.1 Environmental Effects of Agricultural Land Use
5.10.2 Landscape Modification by Agricultural Practices
5.10.3 Societal Effects: Diets, Gender Roles, and Economic Purpose
5.11.1 Biotechnology, GMOs, Aquaculture, and Sustainability Debates
5.11.2 Food-System Movements and Individual Choice
5.11.3 Feeding the World: Access, Distribution, and Land Loss
5.11.4 Economics and Policy in Food Production
5.12.1 Geographic Variation in Women’s Roles in Food Systems
6.1.1 Site Factors and City Origins
6.1.2 Situation Factors: Relative Location and Connectivity
6.1.3 Transportation and Communication as Urbanization Drivers
6.1.4 Population Growth and Migration Patterns
6.1.5 Economic Development and Government Policies
6.2.1 Megacities and Metacities: What Makes Them Distinct
6.2.2 Why Many Large Cities Are in the Periphery and Semiperiphery
6.2.3 Suburbanization and Decentralization of Urban Functions
6.2.4 Urban Sprawl: Patterns, Causes, and Consequences
6.2.5 New Land-Use Forms: Edge Cities, Exurbs, and Boomburbs
6.2.6 Challenges of New Urban Forms
6.3.1 World Cities and the Global Urban Hierarchy
6.3.2 How World Cities Drive Globalization
6.3.3 Networks and Linkages Between Cities
6.3.4 Cities as Mediators of Global Processes
6.4.1 Urban Hierarchy and Interdependence
6.4.2 Rank-Size Rule: Expected City-Size Patterns
6.4.3 Primate Cities: Causes and Regional Impacts
6.4.4 Gravity Model: Predicting Interaction Between Cities
6.4.5 Christaller’s Central Place Theory
6.4.6 Applying Models to Real-World City Patterns
6.5.1 Bid-Rent Theory and Land-Value Gradients
6.5.2 Burgess Concentric-Zone Model
6.5.3 Hoyt Sector Model
6.5.4 Harris and Ullman Multiple-Nuclei Model
6.5.5 Galactic (Peripheral) City Model
6.5.6 Urban Models in Latin America
6.5.7 Urban Models in Southeast Asia
6.5.8 Urban Models in Africa and Model Limitations
6.6.1 Understanding Residential Density
6.6.2 Low-Density Housing Patterns
6.6.3 Medium-Density Housing Patterns
6.6.4 High-Density Housing Patterns
6.6.5 Culture and Technology in the Built Landscape
6.6.6 Cycles of Development and Infilling
6.7.1 What Urban Infrastructure Includes
6.7.2 Infrastructure and Spatial Development Patterns
6.7.3 Infrastructure, Politics, and Power
6.7.4 Infrastructure and Society
6.7.5 Infrastructure and the Environment
6.8.1 Sustainable Urban Design and Zoning Overview
6.8.2 Mixed Land Use and Walkability
6.8.3 Transportation-Oriented Development (TOD)
6.8.4 Smart Growth and New Urbanism
6.8.5 Greenbelts and Slow-Growth Cities
6.8.6 Benefits of Sustainability Initiatives
6.8.7 Criticisms and Unintended Consequences
6.9.1 Why Urban Geographers Use Data
6.9.2 Quantitative Data: Census and Surveys
6.9.3 What Quantitative Patterns Can Reveal
6.9.4 Qualitative Data: Field Studies
6.9.5 Qualitative Data: Narratives and Attitudes
6.9.6 Using Mixed Methods to Explain Change
6.10.1 Residential Mobility and Urban Change
6.10.2 Housing Discrimination and Affordability
6.10.3 Access to Services and Opportunities
6.10.4 Crime and Urban Social Challenges
6.10.5 Environmental Injustice and Disamenity Zones
6.10.6 Squatter Settlements and Land Tenure Conflicts
6.10.7 Responses: Inclusionary Zoning and Local Food Movements
6.10.8 Urban Renewal, Gentrification, and Fragmented Governance
6.11.1 Overview of Urban Sustainability Challenges
6.11.2 Suburban Sprawl as a Sustainability Issue
6.11.3 Sanitation and Public Health
6.11.4 Climate Change and Cities
6.11.5 Air and Water Quality
6.11.6 Ecological Footprint and Energy Use
6.11.7 Responses: Regional Planning and Coordination
6.11.8 Responses: Brownfields, Growth Boundaries, and Farmland Protection
7.1.1 Origins of Industrialization: Technology and Resources
7.1.2 Diffusion Effects: Food Supply, Population, and Urban Jobs
7.1.3 Social Change: New Class Structures in Industrial Societies
7.1.4 Industrial Capitalism and Empire: Raw Materials and New Markets
7.2.1 Economic Sectors and Development Patterns
7.2.2 Labor and Resources as Industrial Location Factors
7.2.3 Transportation, Shipping Containers, and Break-of-Bulk Points
7.2.4 Least-Cost Thinking and Manufacturing Location
7.2.5 Core, Semiperiphery, and Periphery Manufacturing Patterns
7.3.1 Economic Output Measures: GDP, GNP, and GNI per Capita
7.3.2 Economic Structure and Inequality: Sectors, Informal Economy, Income Distribution
7.3.3 Population Indicators: Fertility and Infant Mortality
7.3.4 Health and Education Indicators: Access to Health Care and Literacy
7.3.5 Energy Use as a Development Measure: Fossil Fuels vs. Renewables
7.3.6 Measuring Gender Inequality: The Gender Inequality Index (GII)
7.3.7 Human Development Index (HDI) and Spatial Variation in Development
7.4.1 How Women’s Roles Change with Economic Development
7.4.2 Women in the Workforce: Participation and Gender Parity
7.4.3 Persistent Inequality: Wages and Employment Opportunities
7.4.4 Microloans and Women’s Entrepreneurship
7.5.1 Rostow’s Stages of Economic Growth
7.5.2 Wallerstein’s World-Systems Theory
7.5.3 Dependency Theory
7.5.4 Commodity Dependence
7.6.1 Why Trade Happens: Complementarity and Comparative Advantage
7.6.2 Neoliberal Policies and Free Trade Agreements
7.6.3 Trade Organizations and Regional Blocs
7.6.4 Government Trade Policies: Tariffs and Development
7.6.5 Global Financial Crises, IMF, and Interdependence
7.6.6 Development Finance and Microlending
7.7.1 Outsourcing, Restructuring, and Shifting Industrial Jobs
7.7.2 New Manufacturing Zones: SEZs, Free-Trade Zones, and EPZs
7.7.3 International Division of Labor and Low-Paying Work
7.7.4 Post-Fordism: Flexible and Networked Production
7.7.5 Agglomeration, Economies of Scale, and Growth Poles
7.7.6 Just-in-Time Delivery and Multiplier Effects
7.7.7 The Rise of Services and High-Tech Industries
7.8.1 Sustainability Principles and Spatial Development
7.8.2 Resource Depletion and Mass Consumption
7.8.3 Pollution and Environmental Impacts of Industrialization
7.8.4 Climate Change and Sustainable Development Responses
7.8.5 Ecotourism as a Sustainable Development Strategy
7.8.6 Using the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
7.8.7 Examples of SDG-Focused Projects

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