OCR Specification focus:
‘the methods and leadership of Chartism, government attitudes and the impact of Chartism 1837–1848.’
Chartism was Britain’s first mass working-class movement, seeking political reform through the People’s Charter. Its methods, leadership, government responses and wider impact shaped nineteenth-century politics.
Methods of Chartism
Chartists employed a wide variety of strategies to press for reform, reflecting divisions between moral force and physical force Chartists.
Petitions to Parliament:
1839, 1842 and 1848 saw three national petitions presented, each with millions of signatures.
Their rejection by Parliament fuelled radical frustration.
Mass Meetings:
Chartists organised large outdoor rallies, particularly in industrial regions.
These gatherings were designed to demonstrate working-class solidarity and numbers.
Pamphlets and Newspapers:
The Northern Star, edited by Feargus O’Connor, spread Chartist ideas widely.
Front page of the Northern Star and Leeds General Advertiser (no. 3, 2 December 1837), the leading Chartist newspaper. Its circulation and tone helped coordinate local associations and frame national demands. Extra printed details (price, size) appear on the page but are not required by the syllabus. Source
Cheap print allowed the movement to reach illiterate audiences via readings at meetings.
Strikes and Industrial Action:
The General Strike of 1842, known as the Plug Plot Riots, linked Chartism with workplace protest.
Workers removed boiler plugs to halt production, making the strike highly disruptive.
Physical Force Threats:
In certain regions, especially South Wales, armed uprisings were attempted.
The Newport Rising (1839) was the most serious, when thousands of miners marched on Newport before being suppressed.
The diversity of methods reflected both creativity and disunity, as leaders disagreed on whether peaceful persuasion or confrontation was more effective.
Leadership of Chartism
Leadership was both a source of strength and division.
Feargus O’Connor:
The most prominent leader, controlling the Northern Star and founding the Chartist Land Plan (a scheme to resettle workers on smallholdings).
His charisma and oratory inspired many, but his land plan was impractical and divisive.
William Lovett:
Advocated moral force Chartism, stressing education, temperance and peaceful petitioning.
Founder of the London Working Men’s Association, he drafted the People’s Charter (1838).
Bronterre O’Brien:
Influential intellectual within Chartism, stressing the need for broader social and economic reform alongside political change.
Regional Leaders:
Local figures such as John Frost in Wales or George Julian Harney in London played significant roles in mobilising working-class communities.
People’s Charter: The 1838 manifesto setting out six democratic demands, including universal male suffrage, secret ballot, annual parliaments, equal constituencies, payment for MPs, and abolition of property qualifications.
Disputes between moral force and physical force Chartists weakened cohesion, but also demonstrated the movement’s breadth and capacity to engage diverse supporters.
Government Responses
The state reacted firmly to Chartist activities, determined to prevent revolutionary upheaval.
Repression of Demonstrations:
The 1839 Newport Rising was crushed by troops; over 20 Chartists were killed and leaders arrested.
1848 demonstrations on Kennington Common were heavily policed, with military forces deployed in London to prevent disorder.
Daguerreotype showing the Great Chartist Meeting on Kennington Common on 10 April 1848, with ordered ranks, banners and speaker platforms. The image captures the movement’s ability to mobilise large numbers while authorities prepared an extensive security presence. This real-time visual evidence supports analysis of both methods and state control in 1848. Source
Imprisonment of Leaders:
O’Connor, Lovett and many others faced repeated arrests.
Harsh prison conditions weakened morale and organisation.
Legislation and Policing:
The Metropolitan Police, created in 1829, proved effective in controlling demonstrations.
Local magistrates employed special constables to contain large gatherings.
Intelligence and Surveillance:
The government infiltrated Chartist groups with spies.
This allowed pre-emptive arrests of organisers before planned risings.
The consistent government strategy of combining repression with reforms on other fronts, such as factory legislation, limited Chartism’s effectiveness.
Impact of Chartism
Chartism’s immediate aims failed, but its broader legacy was profound.
Failure of the Charter:
All three petitions were rejected; Parliament refused to debate them seriously.
No immediate adoption of the six points occurred.
Short-term Impact:
Divisions between physical and moral force factions led to disorganisation.
Economic conditions shaped Chartist strength: support peaked during depressions, declining in prosperity.
Long-term Political Legacy:
Although unsuccessful at the time, five of the six Charter demands were eventually achieved between 1867 and 1918.
Chartism established the principle of working-class political organisation and mass mobilisation.
Cultural and Social Influence:
Chartist newspapers created a politicised working-class reading culture.
The experience of activism fostered skills in organisation, debate and collective action.
Relationship with Other Movements:
Chartism overlapped with trade union militancy, though unions often distanced themselves from physical force tactics.
It laid the groundwork for later labour politics in Britain.
Chartism ultimately failed to achieve its immediate objectives, but its methods, leadership struggles, and the harsh government responses reflected the tensions of a society in transition towards mass democracy.
FAQ
The Plug Plot Riots were the largest wave of strikes associated with Chartism, beginning in Lancashire and spreading across the Midlands and Yorkshire.
Strikers removed boiler plugs from steam engines, halting production. This linked political demands with economic protest, showing how Chartism could merge with workers’ industrial grievances.
Although disruptive, the riots alienated some moderate supporters and gave the government justification for repression.
The Newport Rising was the only significant armed confrontation of the movement. Thousands of Welsh Chartists, led by John Frost, marched to free imprisoned comrades.
The army fired on the crowd outside the Westgate Hotel, killing over 20 and injuring many more.
After this, government repression intensified, and most leaders realised violent uprisings risked disaster, shifting Chartist strategy towards petitions and mass meetings.
Moral force Chartists, like William Lovett, prioritised petitions, education, and peaceful campaigning. Physical force Chartists, such as Feargus O’Connor and leaders in industrial areas, were willing to consider strikes and insurrection.
These divisions:
Confused supporters about the movement’s direction.
Created mistrust between leaders.
Allowed the government to exploit weaknesses and present Chartism as disorganised.
While variety kept Chartism adaptable, it ultimately undermined cohesion.
The government relied heavily on surveillance. Spies infiltrated Chartist meetings and reported plans back to magistrates and central authorities.
This allowed pre-emptive arrests of leaders before uprisings could gather strength, such as in Yorkshire in 1840.
Informants also spread fear and distrust within the movement, discouraging coordinated planning. This covert strategy meant Chartist radical actions rarely reached full momentum.
Chartism demonstrated that organised working-class activism could pressure Parliament. Later movements drew on its methods, even if they avoided its confrontational aspects.
Influences included:
The trade unions’ emphasis on solidarity and organisation.
Reform campaigns that adopted petitions and public meetings.
The gradual acceptance of working-class voices in politics.
By the 1860s and beyond, politicians recognised that ignoring such mass movements risked unrest, encouraging incremental reforms.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two methods used by Chartists to promote their cause between 1837 and 1848.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct method identified (maximum 2).
Acceptable answers include:Petitions to Parliament
Mass meetings
Chartist newspapers such as the Northern Star
Strikes and industrial action (e.g. Plug Plot Riots)
Armed uprisings (e.g. Newport Rising)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the leadership of the Chartist movement affected its effectiveness between 1837 and 1848.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): General description of Chartist leadership with limited reference to effectiveness (e.g. simply naming leaders without explanation).
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation of how leaders influenced effectiveness, with at least one relevant example (e.g. O’Connor’s role in popularising the Northern Star but divisions caused by his Land Plan).
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear and developed explanation covering at least two aspects of leadership, with supporting evidence linked to effectiveness. Points may include:
Feargus O’Connor’s charisma and control of the Northern Star boosted support, but his impractical Land Plan undermined unity.
William Lovett’s moral force approach encouraged peaceful campaigning but limited impact compared to more radical leaders.
Divisions between moral force and physical force leaders weakened cohesion, reducing Chartism’s chances of success.
