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OCR A-Level History

Study notes
1.1.1 Alfred’s strategic position and the Great Heathen Army 865–878
1.1.2 Refuge at Athelney, victory and the capture of London 886
1.1.3 Reorganisation of the army and navy; reasons for success
1.1.4 Return of the Vikings in the 890s and assessment of Alfred’s success
1.2.1 Administrative reforms and unification of Alfred’s territory
1.2.2 The Burghal system: creation, functions and economic impact
1.2.3 Alfred’s legal reforms and Law Code
1.2.4 England at Alfred’s death and the idea of ‘King of the English’
1.3.1 Court intellectuals, learning programme and religious motivation
1.3.2 Writings, translations and the role of Asser
1.3.3 Latin education for priests and literature as propaganda
1.4.1 Dynastic stability and Scandinavian settlement challenges
1.4.2 Campaigns of Edward and Aethelflaed: conquest of the Danelaw
1.4.3 Relations with neighbouring rulers: Welsh, Scots and Norwegians
1.4.4 The extent of Edward’s power by 924
1.5.1 Capture of York and consolidation (927)
1.5.2 Relations with Scotland and the battle of Brunanburh 937
1.5.3 Continued Viking problems and continental connections
1.5.4 Government, court and legal codes II & VI
1.6.1 Viking resurgence and recovery of the northern Danelaw
1.6.2 Strathclyde and the struggles for Northumbria
1.6.3 Administrative and legal reforms of Edgar
1.6.4 Monastic revival and cultural developments under Edgar
1.7.1 Monastic crisis and the murder of Edward the Martyr 978
1.7.2 Renewed Viking threat, tribute and internal divisions
1.7.3 Aethelred’s legislation and legal codes
1.7.4 Cultural and ecclesiastical developments under Aethelred
2.1.1 Political Instability and Danish Influence 1035–1042
2.1.2 Edward the Confessor: Policies and Norman Connections
2.1.3 The Godwin Family and the Succession Crisis 1051–1066
2.2.1 Invasion Preparations and Strategy
2.2.2 Campaigns at Fulford, Stamford Bridge, and Harold’s Response
2.2.3 Battle of Hastings: Course, Outcome and Reasons for Victory
2.3.1 Early Rebellions and the Harrying of the North
2.3.2 Norman Castle Building: Motives, Techniques and Impact
2.3.3 Emergence of the Norman Elite and External Threats
2.4.1 Government and Administrative Continuities and Changes
2.4.2 Social Reordering: Earls, Barons, Knights, and Church Relations
2.4.3 The Domesday Book and Regional Change
2.5.1 Succession Disputes and Baronial Rebellions (1088–1095)
2.5.2 Campaigns in Scotland and Wales
2.5.3 Ranulf Flambard and the Machinery of Government
2.6.1 William II’s Attitude toward the Church and Trial of St‑Calais
2.6.2 Relations with the Papacy and the Investiture Controversy
2.6.3 Monasticism and Ecclesiastical Reform under William II
2.7.1 Political Context on William II’s Return 1099–1100
2.7.2 The Death in the New Forest: Events and Interpretations
2.7.3 Henry I’s Accession and Consolidation 1100–1107
3.1.1 Securing the Angevin inheritance, peace with Philip & marriage to Isabelle
3.1.2 Murder of Arthur, fall of Château Gaillard & noble reactions
3.1.3 Loss of Normandy: impact & financial strain on warfare
3.2.1 Government 1204–1212, John’s presence & attempts to regain lands
3.2.2 Financial demands, feudal rights & growing baronial opposition
3.2.3 Course of the rebellion, Magna Carta & renewal of war
3.3.1 Relations with Church and Papacy, Stephen Langton & Innocent III
3.3.2 The Interdict and excommunication: effects on kingship
3.3.3 End of Interdict, papal overlordship & quashing Magna Carta
3.4.1 Succession, Regency Council & William Marshal’s leadership
3.4.2 Settlement after 1215, 1220s rebellions & key ministers
3.4.3 War with France 1230 & the Rebellion of 1232
3.5.1 Personal rule, marriage alliance & royal ideology
3.5.2 Local government & policy toward the Jews
3.5.3 Unpopularity, French campaigns & the Sicilian affair
3.6.1 Coup of 1258, expulsion of Poitevins & Provisions of Oxford
3.6.2 Crisis of 1260 & papal dispensation
3.6.3 Henry’s recovery & Welsh Marches disorder 1261–1263
3.7.1 Seizure of power, Lord Edward & Battle of Lewes 1264
3.7.2 Parliament 1265, threat of invasion & Battle of Evesham
3.7.3 Dictum of Kenilworth, reconstruction & subsidy 1269–1270
4.1.1 Minority government and the Councils
4.1.2 John of Gaunt and the French war
4.1.3 Parliaments, Poll Tax and Wycliffe
4.2.1 Royal ideology and the Peasants’ Revolt
4.2.2 Court factions and foreign wars 1385–1386
4.2.3 Wonderful & Merciless Parliaments
4.3.1 Return of Gaunt and renewed stability 1388–1397
4.3.2 London quarrel and royal bereavement
4.3.3 Purge, tyranny and deposition 1397–1399
4.4.1 Accession and legitimacy issues
4.4.2 Rebellions and uprisings 1400–1408
4.4.3 Governance, finance and Lollardy
4.5.1 Restoring authority and the 1413 Parliament
4.5.2 Lollardy and religious dissent 1413–1414
4.5.3 Conspiracy and government reform 1415
4.6.1 Causes and early diplomacy 1399–1415
4.6.2 Henry V’s campaigns and treaties 1415–1421
4.6.3 French revival and English defeat 1429–1453
4.7.1 Planning the Minority: Gloucester & Beaufort
4.7.2 Suffolk’s Domination, Act of Resumption & Cade’s Rebellion
4.7.3 York’s Return, Henry VI’s Insanity & Power Struggle 1453–1455
5.1.1 Government Crisis and Opposition 1445–1450
5.1.2 Royal Patronage, Advisors and Noble Conflict
5.1.3 Cade’s Rebellion, French Failure and Royal Illness
5.2.1 York’s Return and Coup Attempt 1450–1452
5.2.2 Succession Crisis and First Protectorate 1453–1454
5.2.3 Margaret of Anjou and the Second Protectorate 1455
5.3.1 First Battle of St Albans and York’s Protectorate
5.3.2 Margaret’s Regency, Neville Influence and Love‑day 1458
5.3.3 Northampton, York’s Death and Edward’s Claim 1460
5.4.1 Governance, Nobility and Unrest 1461–1470
5.4.2 Woodville Marriage, Warwick and French Diplomacy
5.4.3 Readeption and Restoration 1470–1471
5.5.1 Edward IV’s Government, Nobility and Finances
5.5.2 Richard III’s Usurpation and Consolidation
5.5.3 Rule of Richard III and Defeat at Bosworth
5.6.1 Tudor Claim and Yorkist Threats
5.6.2 Managing the Nobility and Local Governance
5.6.3 Financial Reform, Taxation and Parliament
5.7.1 European Context and Early French Treaties
5.7.2 Burgundy, Spain and Commercial Diplomacy
5.7.3 Relations with Scotland and Security of the Northern Border
6.1.1 Henry VII’s claim and Yorkist challengers
6.1.2 Controlling the nobility: rewards and punishments
6.1.3 Fiscal reform and administrative consolidation
6.2.1 Henry VII’s diplomatic aims and European context
6.2.2 Treaties with Burgundy, France, Scotland and Spain
6.2.3 Marriage alliances and trade agreements
6.3.1 Henry VIII’s early reign and role in government to 1529
6.3.2 Wolsey’s foreign policy and diplomacy
6.3.3 Wolsey’s domestic reforms and fall
6.4.1 Henrician Reformation legislation and dissolution
6.4.2 Pilgrimage of Grace: causes and consequences
6.4.3 Cromwell, faction and foreign wars in the 1540s
6.5.1 Edward VI’s minority and Mary I’s gender challenges
6.5.2 The Devise for the Succession and political crisis 1553–1558
6.5.3 Faction under Somerset, Northumberland, Paget and Gardiner
6.6.1 Religious policy and change under Edward VI
6.6.2 Marian restoration and persecution
6.6.3 Local reactions and opposition to religious change
6.7.1 Socio-economic roots of unrest 1547–1558
6.7.2 Western and Kett rebellions 1549
6.7.3 Lady Jane Grey and Wyatt’s rebellion 1553–1554
7.1.1 Minority & female rule: Edward VI’s age and Mary’s gender
7.1.2 Succession crises: the Devise of 1553 & settlement of 1558
7.1.3 Court factions: Somerset, Northumberland, Paget & Gardiner
7.2.1 Protestant legislation: Prayer Books & Acts of Uniformity 1549–1552
7.2.2 Outcomes of reform: extent & results under Edward & Mary
7.2.3 Catholic restoration & local reactions 1553–1558
7.3.1 Socio‑economic roots: inflation, enclosure & poverty
7.3.2 Popular risings: Western & Kett rebellions 1549
7.3.3 Political plots: Lady Jane Grey 1553 & Wyatt 1554
7.4.1 The Elizabethan Religious Settlement 1559
7.4.2 Puritan challenge & separatism
7.4.3 Catholic threat: Mary Queen of Scots, plots & Jesuits
7.1 The stability of the monarchy7.2 Religious changes7.3 Rebellion and unrest7.4 Elizabeth and religion7.5 The nature of the Elizabethan Monarchy, Government & Parliament7.6 Elizabeth’s management of financial, economic & social affairs7.7 Elizabethan later years 1588–1603
8.1.1 Divine Right, extravagance and financial disputes
8.1.2 The Great Contract and inadequacy of royal finances
8.1.3 Foreign policy, peace with Spain and the Spanish Match
8.2.1 Anglican Church, Puritanism and Hampton Court Conference
8.2.2 Rise of Arminianism and growth of Puritan opposition
8.2.3 Catholic policies and the Gunpowder Plot
8.3.1 Early parliaments, foreign policy and Buckingham
8.3.2 Personal Rule finance: ship money and grievances
8.3.3 Laudian reforms, Wentworth’s ‘Thorough’ and Bishops’ Wars
8.4.1 Short & Long Parliaments and dismantling prerogative rule
8.4.2 Crises of 1640–1642: Irish Rebellion, Grand Remonstrance, Five Members
8.4.3 Civil War: strengths, New Model Army and outcome
8.5.1 Negotiations with Charles I, Scots and the army
8.5.2 Radicalism, Levellers and religious debates
8.5.3 Second Civil War, Pride’s Purge and the trial of Charles I
8.6.1 The Rump Parliament: achievements and dismissal
8.6.2 Instrument of Government and Cromwell as Lord Protector
8.6.3 Major Generals, Ireland and the death of Oliver Cromwell
8.7.1 Richard Cromwell and the struggle for authority
8.7.2 General Monck, the army and the Convention Parliament
8.7.3 Declaration of Breda and the settlement of 1660
9.1.1 Opposition, Succession and the Exclusion Crisis
9.1.2 Consolidation of Power 1681–1685: Finance and Borough Control
9.1.3 Rye House Plot, Party Politics and the Church 1681–1685
9.2.1 Accession, Elections and Rebellions of 1685
9.2.2 Dispensing Power, Non‑conformists and Corporations
9.2.3 Catholic Policies, Indulgences and the Bishops’ Trial
9.3.1 The Invitation to William and Decision to Invade
9.3.2 Collapse of James II: Actions, Defeat and Departure
9.3.3 Convention Parliament and the Offer of the Crown
9.4.1 Political and Religious Settlement 1689–1701
9.4.2 Queen Anne, Whigs & Tories, and War Ministries
9.4.3 Scottish Settlement and the 1707 Union
9.5.1 Tory Eclipse, Jacobitism and the ‘15 & ‘45 Risings
9.5.2 Walpole: South Sea Bubble, Patronage and Management
9.5.3 Radicalism and Calls for Reform under George III
9.6.1 Evangelical Revival and Rise of Methodism
9.6.2 Trade Expansion, Finance and National Debt
9.6.3 Urbanisation, Crime and Popular Unrest
9.7.1 William III, the Nine Years War and Peace of Ryswick
9.7.2 War of the Spanish Succession and Treaty of Utrecht 1713
9.7.3 Hanoverian, Walpole and Pitt: from Jenkins’ Ear to Seven Years War
10.1.1 Financial and administrative reforms; trade policies
10.1.2 French Revolution, radical threats and Whig splits 1790‑1794
10.1.3 Anti‑radical legislation and security measures 1794‑1801
10.2.1 Radical challenge, Corn Law & Peterloo 1812‑1822
10.2.2 Leadership and Tory governments: Liverpool, Canning & Wellington
10.2.3 Economic & legal reforms: Huskisson, Peel and Catholic Emancipation
10.3.1 Pitt as War Minister: isolation to Napoleonic conflict 1783‑1806
10.3.2 Castlereagh and Congress diplomacy 1812‑1822
10.3.3 Canning’s foreign policy: Holy Alliance to Greek Question 1822‑1830
10.4.1 Attitudes and early reform attempts 1783‑1830
10.4.2 Pressure for reform and popular discontent 1828‑1832
10.4.3 Aims and terms of the 1832 Reform Act
10.5.1 Tamworth Manifesto and party reorganisation to 1841
10.5.2 Government 1841‑1846: finance and economic reform
10.5.3 Corn Laws, Anti‑Corn Law League and Peel’s fall from power
10.6.1 Factory legislation and child labour 1833‑1846
10.6.2 Poor Law reform and opposition 1815‑1847
10.6.3 Ireland: land, Maynooth grant and famine
10.7.1 Trade Unions, GNCTU and Tolpuddle Martyrs
10.7.2 Origins and support for Chartism
10.7.3 Methods, leadership, government response and impact of Chartism
11.1.1 Repeal & Party Realignment 1846
11.1.2 Emergence & Ideology of Liberal Party
11.1.3 Foreign Affairs as Catalyst 1848–60
11.2.1 Ideology & Economic Principles
11.2.2 Social & Irish Reforms 1868–74
11.2.3 Political Strategy & 1874 Defeat
11.3.1 Rebuilding Conservatives 1846–68
11.3.2 One Nation Conservatism & Reforms 1874–80
11.3.3 Imperial & Foreign Policy 1874–80
11.4.1 Gladstone's Later Ministries & Home Rule
11.4.2 Salisbury's Conservative Ascendancy 1885–1902
11.4.3 Party Organisation & Reform
11.5.1 Conservative Decline & 1906 Landslide
11.5.2 Rise of Labour & Industrial Unrest
11.5.3 Constitutional Crisis & Suffrage & Home Rule
11.6.1 New Liberalism & Poverty Debates
11.6.2 Liberal Welfare Reforms 1908–13
11.6.3 War-Time Social Policy 1914–18
11.7.1 Mobilising the Home Front
11.7.2 Leadership & Politics during War
11.7.3 Social Change & Franchise Reform 1918
12.1.1 Balfour Conservatives and the Liberal Landslide
12.1.2 Rise of Labour and Trade Unionism 1893–1914
12.1.3 Constitutional Crisis, Suffrage, Ireland and Industrial Unrest
12.2.1 New Liberalism and Poverty Debates
12.2.2 Education Acts and Children’s Charter
12.2.3 Early Welfare: Pensions, National Insurance and Worker Protection
12.3.1 Public Attitudes and Home Front Impact
12.3.2 Coalitions and Liberal Splits 1915–1916
12.3.3 Labour Constitution, Women’s Role and 1918 Franchise
12.4.1 1918 Election, Liberal Decline and Lloyd George’s Fall
12.4.2 1923 Election and First Labour Government 1924
12.4.3 Conservative Governments 1924–1929 and Franchise Extension
12.5.1 Second Labour Government 1929–1931 and Economic Crisis
12.5.2 National Government and Leadership to 1937
12.5.3 Political Extremism and Foreign Affairs Impact
12.6.1 Post‑war Conditions, Staple Industries and General Strike
12.6.2 Great Depression and Unemployment Patterns
12.6.3 National Government Economic and Social Policies
12.7.1 Chamberlain’s Fall, Churchill and Wartime Society
12.7.2 Beveridge Report, Butler Education Act and 1945 Election
12.7.3 Labour Governments 1945–1951: Reforms and Challenges
13.1.1 Out of office 1929–1939, rearmament and appeasement criticism
13.1.2 Empire, India and the Abdication Crisis
13.1.3 Attitude to Germany after 1933 and rise to premiership 1940
13.2.1 Leadership stance in 1940 and style of leadership
13.2.2 Relations with generals and strategic decisions
13.2.3 Plans for reconstruction and 1945 election defeat
13.3.1 Allied relations and wartime conferences
13.3.2 Post‑war Europe plans and Iron Curtain speech
13.3.3 World and imperial role after 1945
13.4.1 Reasons for victory 1951 and rising affluence
13.4.2 Leadership, economic policies and scandals
13.4.3 Reasons for Conservative decline and Labour divisions
13.5.1 Wilson government 1964–1970: economy and unions
13.5.2 Heath government 1970–1974 and industrial relations
13.5.3 Wilson and Callaghan 1974–1979: crises and policies
13.6.1 Thatcher victories and economic policies
13.6.2 Unemployment, Trade Unions and social unrest
13.6.3 Fall of Thatcher, Major’s divisions and 1997 defeat
13.7.1 Relations with USA/USSR, UN role and nuclear policy
13.7.2 Britain and Europe: from EEC entry to EU debates
13.7.3 Crises and decolonisation: Suez, Falklands, Gulf War, Commonwealth
14.1.1 Structure Pre & Religious Beliefs Pre Islamic Arabia
14.1.2 Commercial Importance Mecca & Influence Tribalism
14.1.3 Decline Byzantine Sassanian Empires Impact & Impact Plague W
14.1.4 Arab Military Strengths & Meccan Period C.570
14.2.1 Impact Revelation Hijra & Medinan Period C.622
14.2.2 Challenges Prophet Muhammad & Flight Prophet Muhammad
14.2.3 Constitution Medina Significance
14.2.4 Early Growth Islam Reasons Appeal
14.3.1 Disagreements About Succession & Succession Abu Bakr
14.3.2 Ridda Wars Wars Apostasy & Beginnings Empire Expansion Into
14.3.3 Rule Abu Bakr & Umar Ibn Al
14.3.4 Uthman Ibn Affan & Ali Ibn Abi Talib
14.4.1 Rule Mu’Awiya & Second Fitna 680
14.4.2 Establishment Syria Damascus & Expansion Empire North Africa
14.4.3 Relations Christians & Systems Methods Government
14.4.4 Unrest & Decline Umayyad Empire
15.1.1 Situation Frankish Lands Charlemagne’S Accession & Successio
15.1.2 Reasons Changing Motives War & Wars Against Saxons
15.1.3 Destruction Irminsul & Methods Warfare
15.1.4 Reasons Success
15.2.1 Aims Methods Control Organisation & Capitularies
15.2.2 Economic Policies Coinage & Importance Church Effective Gove
15.2.3 Religious Policies & Legal Reforms
15.2.4 Extent Success Administrative Religious Policies
15.3.2 Gregorian Chant & Schools Metz
15.3.3 Work Scholars Alcuin & Byzantine Pre
15.3.4 Courts At Frankfurt & Extent Cultural Revival
15.4.1 Charlemagne’S Motives Aid Pope Leo & Reasons Imperial Corona
15.4.2 Relations Byzantium
15.4.3 Divisio
15.4.4 Consolidation Or Decline Later Years
16.1.1 Situation Western Europe & Idea Holy War
16.1.2 Urban Ii’S Aims Appeal At & Preaching First Crusade
16.1.3 People’S Crusade & Leadership First Crusade Divisions
16.1.4 Political Religious Divisions Islamic World & Military Tacti
16.2.1 Establishment & Role Rulers
16.2.2 Problems Succession & Internal Rivalries Baldwin Iii Melisen
16.2.3 Manpower & Castles
16.2.4 Military Orders Templars Hospitallers & Finance
16.3.1 Circumstances Outremer 1130S 1140S & Rise Zengi Development
16.3.2 Bernard Clairvaux Call Second Crusade & Reasons Failure Seco
16.3.3 Events Anatolia & Siege Damascus
16.3.4 Islamic Response Second Crusade & Impact Failure Second Crus
16.4.1 Reasons Aims Third Crusade & Development Idea Jihad
16.4.2 Problems Outremer & Reasons Failure Frederick Barbarossa’S E
16.4.3 Roles Richard I Philip Augustus & Events At Acre Jaffa
16.4.4 Negotiations Saladin & Consequences Third Crusade West
17.1.1 Nature Nomadic Steppe Tribes Mid & Rise Genghis
17.1.2 Strengths Weaknesses Mongol Rule & Karakorum
17.1.3 Defeat Khwarazmians & Invasions Europe
17.1.4 Role Subedei & Civil War Disunity 1264
17.2.1 Consolidation Rule Control China & Economic Policies
17.2.2 Provincial Administration & Legal Code
17.2.3 Court Rituals & Dadu
17.2.4 Limitations As Khagan & Extent Mongol Rule Golden Horde
17.3.1 Nature Mongol Rule 1294 & Impact Ghazan
17.3.2 Role Islam & Disunity Reasons Decline
17.3.3 Tokhtamysh
17.3.4 Rise Tamerlane Impact Persia
17.4.1 Effect Christian & Influence Persia China Mongols West
17.4.2 Bubonic Plague & Role Trade
17.4.3 Travellers Contacts East Marco Polo
17.4.4 Ideological Impact
18.1.1 Reasons Why This Was Age & Renaissance Learning Values
18.1.2 Religion & Technological Change
18.1.3 Geography Internal Developments Portugal Spain & Motives Pat
18.1.4 Routes & Difficulties Faced
18.2.1 Treaty Tordesillas & Encounters Portugal
18.2.2 Encounters Spain & Portuguese Conquest
18.2.3 Spanish Conquests & Difficulties Faced Encounters Conquests
18.2.4 Reasons Success & Gains Losses Individual Explorers Patrons
18.3.1 Portuguese Forts & Settlement Brazil
18.3.2 Spanish Settlement Caribbean
18.3.3 Central Local Administrative Systems Spain
18.3.4 Consequences
18.4.1 Political & European Balance Power
18.4.2 Bullion
18.4.3 Slave Trades
18.4.4 Balance Sheet Personal National Benefits
19.1.1 Situation Spain 1469 & Campaign Secure Throne 1479
19.1.2 Control Nobility Towns & Law Order
19.1.3 Trade Economy & Similarities Differences Rule Castile Aragon
19.1.4 Powers Monarchs & Ferdinand’S Rule After Isabella’S Death
19.2.1 Monarchs’ Religious Aims Beliefs & Relations Rome
19.2.2 La Convivencia & Reconquista
19.2.3 Capture Granada & Treatment Moriscos Conversos
19.2.4 Cisneros Church Reform & Inquisition Impact
19.3.1 Succession & Administrative Methods
19.3.2 Relations Spanish Nobility Towns & Finances
19.3.3 Relations Rome & Polyglot Bible
19.3.4 Philip As Regent & Charles’S Abdication
19.4.1 Exploration Discovery & Columbus Discovery Explorations ‘Ind
19.4.2 Cortes Conquest Mexico & Pizarro Conquest Peru
19.4.3 Economic Impact New World Spanish & Domestic Trade
19.4.4 Foreign Policy
20.1.1 Charles V’S Inheritance Foreign Problems & Structure State H
20.1.2 Luther’S Ideas Publications Printing Press & Papal Excommuni
20.1.3 Imperial Diets & Situation 1529. Spread Lutheranism 1530
20.1.4 Opposing League & Schmalkaldic War
20.2.1 Situation 1520
20.2.2 Expansion Ottoman Power Balkans Mediterranean
20.2.3 Impact Relations
20.2.4 Situation 1540S
20.3.1 Situation Habsburg
20.3.2 Strengths Weaknesses Charles’S Empire France
20.3.3 Development Wars Warfare 1521
21.1.1 Legacy Charles I & Condition Spain
21.1.2 Financial Social Policies & Advisers
21.1.3 Justice & Fates Don Carlos Montigny
21.1.4 Provincialism & Government
21.2.1 Philip Ii’S Inheritance & Religious Reforms
21.2.2 Relations Papacy
21.2.3 Attitude Towards Tridentine Decrees
21.2.4 Moral Spiritual Impact Inquisition
21.3.1 Foreign Situation 1555 & Priorities
21.3.2 Holy League Battle Lepanto & Relations England
21.3.3 Annexation & Consistency Spain’S Aims
21.3.4 Philip’S Reputation Abroad & Achievements Failures
21.4.1 Political & Philip’S Anti
21.4.2 William Orange Maurice Nassau As & Foreign Involvement Revol
21.4.3 Divisions Between North South & Effects Assassination Willia
21.4.4 Reasons Spain’S Failure Crush Revolt & Situation 1598
22.1.1 Situation Sahelian Africa C.1450 & Reasons Rise Songhay Empi
22.1.2 Problems Achievements & Administration Political Centralisat
22.1.3 Role Lawyers Clerics & Shari’
22.1.4 Territorial Expansion & Nature Development Military Especial
22.2.1 Situation West & Reasons Rise Kongo
22.2.2 Religious Change Establishment Kongolese Roman & Achievement
22.2.3 Clientage & Relationship Portugal
22.2.4 Changing Relations European Powers First & Succession Crises
22.3.1 Situation Coastal West Africa C.1500 & Reasons Rise Benin
22.3.2 Imperial Structure Relationship Between Benin & Importance O
22.3.3 Religion Olokun Cult & Slavery
22.3.4 Ivory & Reasons Beginnings Decline Benin From
22.4.1 Situation West Africa C.1600 & Reasons Rise Oyo Dahomey Empi
22.4.2 Selection Procedures & Tax
22.4.3 Imperial Structure Relationship Between City & Religion Role
22.4.4 Slavery & Reasons Decline Oyo Dahomey
23.1.1 Russia 1645 & Personality Rule Alexis
23.1.2 Rule Feodor & Accession Peter Ivan
23.1.3 Early Life Upbringing Peter At & Attempted Coup Sophia 1689
23.1.4 Direct Rule Peter Campaigns Against & Embassy West 1697
23.2.1 Consolidation Peter’S Power & Modernisation Alphabet Calenda
23.2.2 Reforms Church & Reform Army Navy
23.2.3 Education & Developments Industry Agriculture
23.2.4 Position Peasants & St Petersburg
23.3.1 Alexis’S Relations Zaporozhian Cossacks Poland & Influence G
23.3.2 Peter’S Aims Baltic & War Against Sweden
23.3.3 Turkish War Loss Azov 1711 & Military Successes Baltic Battle
23.3.4 Reasons Russian Successes Consequences Territorial & Peter’S
23.4.1 Revolt Stenka Razin & Resistance Westernisation
23.4.2 Revolt Destruction Streltsi & Old Believers
23.4.3 Mazeppa & Tsarevitch Alexis
23.4.4 Extent Westernisation 1725 & Problems Russia Reigns Catherin
24.1.1 India Central Asia Early 16Th & Babur
24.1.2 Nature Mughal Rule India Under & Wars Instability Under Huma
24.1.3 Links Between Humayun Persia & Afghan Interlude
24.1.4 Suri Dynasty Under Sher Shah & Administrative Development
24.2.1 Accession Akbar & Relations Rajput Kingdoms
24.2.2 Religious Policy & Economic Developments
24.2.3 Military Achievements & Territorial Gains
24.2.4 Development Administration Empire & Cultural Artistic Develo
24.3.1 Personalities Rule Jahangir Shah Jahan & Persian Influences
24.3.2 Mughal Architecture & Deccan
24.3.3 Coming Mughal Relations British & Struggle Succession Civil
24.3.4 Triumph Aurangzeb
24.4.1 Personality Rule Aurangzeb & Religious Policies
24.4.2 Campaigns Bijapour Golconda & Foreign Relations
24.4.3 Conflicts Sikhs & Decline After 1707 Aurangzeb’S Responsibility
24.4.4 Dynastic Conflicts After Death & Weak Leaders After 1707
25.1.1 British
25.1.2 Socio
25.1.3 Territorial Expansion 1765
25.1.4 Wars France
25.2.1 Relationship Between Britain Colonies 1763 & British Policy
25.2.2 Tea Act
25.2.3 Developments Political Thought Emerging Leaders
25.2.4 Colonial Political Ideas Views Trade
25.3.1 Move Towards Independence 1774
25.3.2 Outbreak Hostilities
25.3.3 American Unity
25.3.4 1783 Peace Paris
25.4.1 Move Towards Creation Constitution Challenges & Articles Con
25.4.2 Relations Britain & Nature 1787 Constitution United States
25.4.3 Struggle Ratification & Formation First Government
25.4.4 1791 Bill Rights & Problem Finding Successor Washington 1796
26.1.1 Structure Ancien Régime & Qualities Louis Xvi As King
26.1.2 Ideas Enlightenment Impact American Revolution & Social Disc
26.1.3 Assembly Notables Political Developments 1787 & Estates Gene
26.1.4 ‘Great Fear’ & October Days
26.2.1 Attempts Establish Constitutional Monarchy & Reforms Church
26.2.2 Jacobins & Flight Varennes
26.2.3 Convention Terror & Destruction Girondins
26.2.4 Establishment Thermidorian Regime & Constitution Directory
26.3.1 Career Bonaparte 1799 & Military Leadership Reasons Success
26.3.2 Napoleon’S Reforms As Consul
26.3.3 Establishment Nature Empire France
26.3.4 Nature Reasons Military Successes Failures
26.4.1 Continental System War Against Britain & War Spain
26.4.2 Russian Campaign & Napoleon’S Rule France After 1807
26.4.3 Campaigns 1813 & Hundred Days
26.4.4 Personal Failings Reasons Fall
27.1.1 Legacy French Revolution Napoleon 1814 & First Second Restor
27.1.2 Ultras & Liberal Reactionary Policies
27.1.3 Charles X’S Views Monarchy & Social Economic Problems
27.1.4 1830 Election & Ordinances St Cloud
27.2.1 Personality Louis Philippe Establishment & Foreign Policy Be
27.2.2 Guizot & Social Economic Developments Problemsent
27.2.3 Opposition & Corruption
27.2.4 Long Short & Establishment Second Republic
27.3.1 Election Louis Napoleon & Personality
27.3.2 Economic Social Policies & Railways
27.3.3 Attitudes Roman Republic & Overseas Colonisation
27.3.4 Mexico & Relations Britain
28.1.1 Italy 1789 & Impact French Revolution
28.1.2 Italy Impact Vienna Settlement & Unrest Nationalism
28.1.3 Carbonari & Revolutions 1820
28.1.4 Influence Intellectuals Nationalist Movements & Extent Support
28.2.1 Revolutions Lombardy & Role Pope Pius Ix Charles
28.2.2 Role Revolutionary Leaders Garibaldi Mazzini & Reasons Failu
28.2.3 Results Revolutions
28.2.4 Developments Piedmont Under Cavour Victor
28.3.1 Diplomacy Cavour Relations Napoleon Iii & Causes Results War
28.3.2 Garibaldi Thousand Expedition Sicily
28.3.3 Role Victor Emmanuel II
28.3.4 Constitution Nature Kingdom Italy
28.4.1 Piedmontisation 1861 & Further Attempts At Unification
28.4.2 Impact Prussia’S Wars Against Austria & Degree Unity 1871
28.4.3 Mezzogiorno & Relations Church
28.4.4 Italy’S Relations Other European Powers & Colonial Expansion
29.1.1 Factors Which Contributed Opening Up
29.1.2 Impact Federal Government Westward Expansion
29.1.3 Economic
29.2.1 Nature Diversity Native American Society & Jackson Indian Re
29.2.2 Bureau Indian Affairs & Treaties ‘Indian Wars’ 1860S/70S
29.2.3 Resources
29.2.4 Reasons Destruction Native American Societies
29.3.1 Main Differences Between North South & Sectionalism
29.3.2 Issues Slavery Westward Expansion As
29.3.3 Election 1860
29.3.4 Reasons Outbreak Hostilities
29.4.1 Leadership North South During Civil & Lincoln Union
29.4.2 Reasons Union Victory Effectiveness Mcclellan & Resources
29.4.3 Morale & Strategies
29.4.4 Significance Major Campaigns Battles Antietam & Naval Blocka
30.1.1 Japanese Society State Late Tokugawa & Peasant Unrest Social
30.1.2 Impact Arrival Us Force Under
30.1.3 Resistance Shogunate
30.1.4 Civil War
30.2.1 Nature Change Emergence Japan As & Ending Power Samurai Chan
30.2.2 Economic Social Change & Industrial Growth
30.2.3 Growth Large Businesses & Naval Development
30.2.4 1889 Constitution & Educational Change
30.3.1 Population Pressure Imperial Ambitions & Annexation Ryukyu I
30.3.2 Participation International Action China & Alliance Britain
30.3.3 Relations Usa & Participation First World War
30.3.4 Siberian Expedition & Treaty Versailles Resentments
30.4.1 Radicalism Repression Post & 1923 Earthquake
30.4.2 Social Change Electoral Reform 1925 & Rise Nationalism
30.4.3 Resentment About Western Influences & Impact Great Depressio
30.4.4 Development Militarism Ideas Pan & Increasing Military Influence
31.1.1 Nationalism & Anglo
31.1.2 Aims Policies Germany & Nature War
31.1.3 War Eastern Front & Role Generals
31.1.4 Entry Usa & Reasons Outcome Western Eastern Fronts
31.2.1 Aims Motives ‘Big Four’ & Terms Impact Peace Treaties
31.2.2 Reasons Nature League Nations & Activities League Nations
31.2.3 Conference Ambassadors & Disarmament
31.2.4 Locarno Treaties & Kellogg
31.3.1 Impact Great Depression International Relations & Italian Foreign Policy
31.3.2 Appeasement Policies Britain France & Spanish Civil War Impact
31.3.3 Relations Between Russia Rest Europe
31.3.4 Outbreak Expansion War Europe
31.4.1 Impact Treaty Versailles Japan & Japanese Nationalism 1920S
31.4.2 Impact Depression Japan & Origins Impact Manchurian Crisis
31.4.3 Impact War Between Japan China & Policies Towards Japanese
31.4.4 Japanese Invasion Indo
32.1.1 Character & Political
32.1.2 National Minorities & Influence Pobedonostsev
32.1.3 Causes & Witte October Manifesto
32.1.4 Dumas & Repression Reform Under Stolypin
32.2.1 Impact First World War 1914 & Nicholas’ Leadership
32.2.2 Criticism Duma & Events March 1917
32.2.3 Return Exiles April Theses & July Days
32.2.4 Events November 1917 & Roles Lenin Trotsky
32.3.1 Constituent Assembly & Civil War
32.3.2 Murder Tsar & Red Terror
32.3.3 Nep & Constitution Government
32.3.4 Strengths Weaknesses Lenin As Leader
32.4.1 Character Abilities Stalin & Rivalries Divisions Bolshevik Party
32.4.2 Stalin’S Tactics Victory & Consolidation Power
32.4.3 Economic Policies 1930S & Industrialisation
32.4.4 Economic transformation
33.1.1 Italy 1896 & Political
33.1.2 Industrial Growth Consequence & Giolitti’S Ministries
33.1.3 Colonial Conflicts & Challenges Caused Irredentism
33.1.4 Foreign Policy Growing Demand War
33.2.1 Early Neutrality Subsequent Entry Into & Treaty London
33.2.2 Post & Career Mussolini
33.2.3 Weaknesses Post & Electoral Pact 1921 March Rome
33.2.4 Transition Mussolini From Prime Minister & Acerbo Law Murder
33.3.1 Corporate State Theory Practice & Propaganda Image Duce
33.3.2 Economic Policy & Industrial Policy
33.3.3 Public Works & Social Policy
33.3.4 Preparations Domestic Impact War & Jewish Policy 1930S
33.4.1 Aims Foreign Policy & Corfu Incident
33.4.2 Policy Towards Britain & Spanish Civil War
33.4.3 Entry Into Second World War & Failures Africa
33.4.4 Greece & Allied Invasion Fall Mussolini
34.1.1 Consequences First World War & Impact Treaty Versailles
34.1.2 Coalition Governments & Challenges Weimar
34.1.3 Stresemann ‘Golden Years’ & Dawes Young Plans
34.1.4 Rise Appeal Nazism & Papen
34.2.1 Hitler’S Consolidation Power & System Government Administration
34.2.2 Treatment Opposition & Religious Policies
34.2.3 German Labour Front & ‘Strength Through Joy’
34.2.4 Education Policy Towards Youth & Racial Policies 1939
34.3.1 War Economy Total War & Impact Bombing
34.3.2 War Racial Policies & Morale Rationing
34.3.3 Opposition Resistance & Consequences Second World War
34.3.4 Cold War
34.4.1 Creation West Germany Ddr & Basic Law Constitution West Germ
34.4.2 Political Social Stability & Foreign Policy
34.4.3 Adenauer’S Decline Der Spiegel Crisis & West Germany 1963
34.4.4 Uprising 1953 & Economic Change
35.1.1 Decisions Asia At Yalta Potsdam & Us Policies
35.1.2 Independence Philippines Roxas & Us Policy Towards China Tai
35.1.3 British Policies Malaysia
35.1.4 Ussr’S Influence Southeast Asia Attitudes
35.2.1 Causes Outbreak Korean War & Us Un Involvement War
35.2.2 Causes Stalemate 1951 & Us Public Opinion
35.2.3 Difficulties Reaching Settlement & Outcome Participants
35.2.4 Creation Seato 1954 Failure 1977 & Non Alignment
35.3.1 French Colonial Government Indochina & Ho Chi Minh Rise Viet
35.3.2 Geneva Conference 1954 Division Vietnam & Eisenhower’S Polic
35.3.3 Formation Nlf & Kennedy’S Policies Towards Indochina
35.3.4 Johnson’S Policy & Start Operation Rolling Thunder
35.4.1 Role Us Military Vietnam & Tet Offensive
35.4.2 Nixon’S Policies Vietnam & Victory North Vietnam Fall Saigon
35.4.3 US Bombing Fall Khmer Republic & Pol Pot Democratic Kampuche
35.4.4 Role Un & Paris Peace Settlement
36.1.1 Situation 1941 & Wartime Tensions Grand Alliance
36.1.2 Conferences
36.1.3 ‘Liberation Europe East West’
36.1.4 Relations Between Stalin
36.2.1 ‘Iron Curtain’ Speech & Soviet Control Eastern Europe
36.2.2 Cominform Comecon & Conflicts Over Germany Berlin Blockade
36.2.3 Creation West East Germany & Nato
36.2.4 Warsaw Pact & Atomic Weapons
36.3.1 Impact Hungarian Rising 1956 & Developments Germany
36.3.2 Arms Race & Space Race
36.3.3 Détente & Brezhnev Doctrine
36.3.4 Impact ‘New Cold War’
36.4.1 Economic Social Problems Ussr Eastern & Western Influence
36.4.2 Pressure Arms Race & Gorbachev
36.4.3 Coup 1991 Russia Under Yeltsin & Reunification Germany
36.4.4 Civil War Break 36.4.4 Civil War Break
37.1.1 Political & 1948 Election Reasons Nationalist Victory
37.1.2 Prohibitions Mixed Marriages Relationships & Geographical Se
37.1.3 Petty Apartheid Separate Amenities Act
37.1.4 Opposition Resistance Nationalist Government Suppression
37.2.1 Reform Development Apartheid Under Verwoerd
37.2.2 Impact Consequences Apartheid Black
37.2.3 Nature of resistance
37.2.4 Nature
37.3.1 Strengths Weaknesses Threats Apartheid 1978 & Pw Botha
37.3.2 Nature Development Opposition This Period & International Re
37.3.3 Reasons Consequences State Emergency 1985 & Reasons
37.3.4 Importance Fw De Klerk
37.4.1 Political & Process Towards Elections 1994
37.4.2 Government National Unity Role Nelson & Reconstruction Devel
37.4.3 Unity Through Sport & Social Economic Developments Problem H
37.4.4 Election 1999 & Political
38.1.1 Early Saxon origins and Mons Badonicus
38.1.2 Expansion to c.600 and early kingdoms
38.1.3 Bretwaldas and overkingship
38.1.4 Administration and the Heptarchy
38.1.5 Seventh-century volatility and Northumbrian expansion
38.1.6 Mercian supremacy and royal power c.825
38.2.1 Pre-Christian belief in Britain and Ireland
38.2.2 Augustine 597 and Christianisation
38.2.3 Roman and Celtic Churches; Whitby 664
38.2.4 Challenges and church-king relations
38.2.5 Theodore and monastic 'golden age'; minsters
38.2.6 Alcuin and missionaries to Europe
38.3.1 Settlements and the rise of towns
38.3.2 Building and landscape change
38.3.3 Farming, land and 'bookland'
38.3.4 Crafts, trade and coinage
38.3.5 Social structure and lordship
38.3.6 Law, dispute and burial rites
38.4.1 Language, identity and assimilation
38.4.2 Literature and learning
38.4.3 Material culture
38.4.4 Sacred art and manuscripts
38.5.1 Mercian supremacy as turning point
38.5.2 Extent, reasons and consequences
38.5.3 Aethelbald's rule 716-757
38.5.4 Offa's leadership and diplomacy
38.5.5 Offa's currency reforms
38.5.6 Offa's Dyke and frontier power
38.6.1 Augustine's mission: immediate and lasting effects
38.6.2 Apostasy and pagan reaction
38.6.3 Celtic Church, Columba and Whitby 664
38.6.4 Organisation, Theodore and monastic growth
38.6.5 Christianity in countryside and towns
38.6.6 Church-king relations and cultural change
38.7.1 Communities and population groups
38.7.2 Changing relationships and identities
38.7.3 Regulating disputes and social order
39.1.1 Context and Definitions: Viking society, administration and livelihood
39.1.2 Key Figures and Leadership: Viking society, administration and livelihood
39.1.3 Institutions, Structures and Policy: Viking society, administration and livelihood
39.1.4 Society, Economy and Culture: Viking society, administration and livelihood
39.1.5 International Relations and Diplomacy: Viking society, administration and livelihood
39.2.1 Causes and Motives: Warfare and raids
39.2.2 Key Figures and Leadership: Warfare and raids
39.2.3 Institutions, Structures and Policy: Warfare and raids
39.2.4 Society, Economy and Culture: Warfare and raids
39.2.5 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: Warfare and raids
39.2.6 International Relations and Diplomacy: Warfare and raids
39.3.1 Context and Definitions: Settlements
39.3.2 Key Figures and Leadership: Settlements
39.3.3 Institutions, Structures and Policy: Settlements
39.3.4 Society, Economy and Culture: Settlements
39.3.5 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: Settlements
39.3.6 International Relations and Diplomacy: Settlements
39.4.1 Society, Economy and Culture: Culture and religion
39.4.2 International Relations and Diplomacy: Culture and religion
39.5.1 Causes and Motives: Raids on England in the late eighth and ninth centuries
39.5.2 Society, Economy and Culture: Raids on England in the late eighth and ninth centuries
39.5.3 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: Raids on England in the late eighth and ninth centuries
39.5.4 Impact, Consequences and Significance: Raids on England in the late eighth and ninth centuries
39.6.1 Context and Definitions: Danelaw
39.6.2 Causes and Motives: Danelaw
39.6.3 Key Figures and Leadership: Danelaw
39.6.4 Institutions, Structures and Policy: Danelaw
39.6.5 Society, Economy and Culture: Danelaw
39.6.6 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: Danelaw
39.7.1 Context and Definitions: Vikings in Ireland
39.7.2 Causes and Motives: Vikings in Ireland
39.7.3 Key Figures and Leadership: Vikings in Ireland
39.7.4 Society, Economy and Culture: Vikings in Ireland
39.7.5 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: Vikings in Ireland
40.1.1 Causes and Motives: Main features of central government
40.1.2 Key Figures and Leadership: Main features of central government
40.1.3 Institutions, Structures and Policy: Main features of central government
40.1.4 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: Main features of central government
40.1.5 Impact, Consequences and Significance: Main features of central government
40.2.1 Key Figures and Leadership: organisation and administration of local government
40.2.2 Institutions, Structures and Policy: organisation and administration of local government
40.3.1 Context and Definitions: government of the Church in England
40.3.2 Key Figures and Leadership: government of the Church in England
40.3.3 Institutions, Structures and Policy: government of the Church in England
40.3.4 Society, Economy and Culture: government of the Church in England
40.3.5 International Relations and Diplomacy: government of the Church in England
40.4.1 Key Figures and Leadership: role of the archbishops of Canterbury
40.4.2 Institutions, Structures and Policy: role of the archbishops of Canterbury
40.4.3 Society, Economy and Culture: role of the archbishops of Canterbury
40.4.4 International Relations and Diplomacy: role of the archbishops of Canterbury
40.5.1 Context and Definitions: reign of Henry I
40.5.2 Key Figures and Leadership: reign of Henry I
40.5.3 Institutions, Structures and Policy: reign of Henry I
40.5.4 Society, Economy and Culture: reign of Henry I
40.5.5 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: reign of Henry I
40.5.6 International Relations and Diplomacy: reign of Henry I
40.6.1 Causes and Motives: Civil War 1139-1154
40.6.2 Institutions, Structures and Policy: Civil War 1139-1154
40.6.3 Society, Economy and Culture: Civil War 1139-1154
40.6.4 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: Civil War 1139-1154
40.6.5 International Relations and Diplomacy: Civil War 1139-1154
40.6.6 Impact, Consequences and Significance: Civil War 1139-1154
40.7.1 Key Figures and Leadership: reign of Richard I in England
40.7.2 Institutions, Structures and Policy: reign of Richard I in England
40.7.3 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: reign of Richard I in England
40.7.4 International Relations and Diplomacy: reign of Richard I in England
41.1.1 Context and Definitions: causes and nature of the heretical movements
41.1.2 Institutions, Structures and Policy: causes and nature of the heretical movements
41.1.3 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: causes and nature of the heretical movements
41.1.4 International Relations and Diplomacy: causes and nature of the heretical movements
41.2.1 Context and Definitions: Support for heretical movements
41.2.2 Causes and Motives: Support for heretical movements
41.2.3 Key Figures and Leadership: Support for heretical movements
41.2.4 Institutions, Structures and Policy: Support for heretical movements
41.2.5 Society, Economy and Culture: Support for heretical movements
41.3.1 Institutions, Structures and Policy: impact of heretical movements upon the medieval Church
41.3.2 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: impact of heretical movements upon the medieval Church
41.3.3 International Relations and Diplomacy: impact of heretical movements upon the medieval Church
41.3.4 Impact, Consequences and Significance: impact of heretical movements upon the medieval Church
41.4.1 Key Figures and Leadership: Maintenance of church authority
41.4.2 Institutions, Structures and Policy: Maintenance of church authority
41.4.3 Society, Economy and Culture: Maintenance of church authority
41.4.4 International Relations and Diplomacy: Maintenance of church authority
41.4.5 Impact, Consequences and Significance: Maintenance of church authority
41.5.1 Context and Definitions: John Wycliffe and the Lollards to c.1420
41.5.2 Causes and Motives: John Wycliffe and the Lollards to c.1420
41.5.3 Key Figures and Leadership: John Wycliffe and the Lollards to c.1420
41.5.4 Institutions, Structures and Policy: John Wycliffe and the Lollards to c.1420
41.5.5 Society, Economy and Culture: John Wycliffe and the Lollards to c.1420
41.5.6 International Relations and Diplomacy: John Wycliffe and the Lollards to c.1420
41.6.1 Key Figures and Leadership: Mendicant Orders
41.6.2 Institutions, Structures and Policy: Mendicant Orders
41.6.3 Society, Economy and Culture: Mendicant Orders
41.6.4 International Relations and Diplomacy: Mendicant Orders
41.6.5 Impact, Consequences and Significance: Mendicant Orders
41.7.1 Key Figures and Leadership: Huss and the Hussites 1400-1436
41.7.2 Institutions, Structures and Policy: Huss and the Hussites 1400-1436
41.7.3 Society, Economy and Culture: Huss and the Hussites 1400-1436
41.7.4 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: Huss and the Hussites 1400-1436
41.7.5 International Relations and Diplomacy: Huss and the Hussites 1400-1436
42.1.1 Context and Definitions: Artistic and cultural development
42.1.2 Causes and Motives: Artistic and cultural development
42.1.3 Key Figures and Leadership: Artistic and cultural development
42.1.4 Society, Economy and Culture: Artistic and cultural development
42.1.5 International Relations and Diplomacy: Artistic and cultural development
42.1.6 Impact, Consequences and Significance: Artistic and cultural development
42.2.1 Key Figures and Leadership: role of the individual
42.2.2 Society, Economy and Culture: role of the individual
42.2.3 International Relations and Diplomacy: role of the individual
42.3.1 Context and Definitions: Religion and religious change
42.3.2 Key Figures and Leadership: Religion and religious change
42.3.3 Institutions, Structures and Policy: Religion and religious change
42.3.4 Society, Economy and Culture: Religion and religious change
42.3.5 International Relations and Diplomacy: Religion and religious change
42.3.6 Impact, Consequences and Significance: Religion and religious change
42.4.1 Key Figures and Leadership: Impact of War
42.4.2 Society, Economy and Culture: Impact of War
42.4.3 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: Impact of War
42.4.4 International Relations and Diplomacy: Impact of War
42.4.5 Impact, Consequences and Significance: Impact of War
42.5.1 Context and Definitions: Venetian Renaissance
42.5.2 Institutions, Structures and Policy: Venetian Renaissance
42.5.3 Society, Economy and Culture: Venetian Renaissance
42.5.4 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: Venetian Renaissance
42.5.5 International Relations and Diplomacy: Venetian Renaissance
42.5.6 Impact, Consequences and Significance: Venetian Renaissance
42.6.1 Key Figures and Leadership: Savonarola
42.6.2 Society, Economy and Culture: Savonarola
42.6.3 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: Savonarola
42.6.4 International Relations and Diplomacy: Savonarola
42.6.5 Impact, Consequences and Significance: Savonarola
42.7.1 Context and Definitions: French Renaissance
42.7.2 Causes and Motives: French Renaissance
42.7.3 Key Figures and Leadership: French Renaissance
42.7.4 Society, Economy and Culture: French Renaissance
42.7.5 Warfare, Conflict and Strategy: French Renaissance
43.1.1 Dynastic Rivalry and the Succession
43.1.2 Religious Causes and Confessional Change
43.1.3 Socio?economic Pressures: Taxation, Famine, Inflation, Enclosures
43.1.4 Rebel Demands, Actions and Motives
43.1.5 Patterns of Causation: Mono? and Multi?causal; Long? and Short?term
43.2.1 Geography of Unrest and Regional Variation
43.2.2 Objectives: Deposition, Policy Change, and Ireland
43.2.3 Scale, Duration and Declining Support
43.2.4 Support Bases and Leadership
43.2.5 Strategy, Tactics and Reasons for Failure
43.3.1 Immediate and Preemptive Responses
43.3.2 Threat Assessment and Government Stability
43.3.3 Policy, Legislation and Propaganda
43.3.4 Wider Impact on Government and Society
43.4.1 Central Authority: Crown, Church, Nobility and Gentry
43.4.2 Local Governance: Lieutenants, Sheriffs and JPs
43.4.3 Popular Attitudes to Authority
43.4.4 Coordination Between Centre and Localities
43.5.1 Causes and Regional Variations
43.5.2 Objectives, Support and Organisation
43.5.3 Leadership: Aske, Hussey and Darcy
43.5.4 Reasons for Limited Success and Failure
43.5.5 Government Response and Threat Level
43.5.6 Role of Central and Local Authorities
43.6.1 Causes and Devon–Cornwall Differences
43.6.2 Objectives, Size and Support
43.6.3 Leadership, Organisation and Tactics
43.6.4 Reasons for Failure
43.6.5 Government Response and Threat Assessment
43.7.1 Causes and Objectives in Ireland
43.7.2 Scale, Support and Leadership
43.7.3 Organisation, Strategy and Reasons for Failure
43.7.4 Government Response and Threat
43.7.5 Central and Local Authorities in Suppression
44.1.1 Shaping Factors: Finance, Economy, Religion, Politics, Dynasty
44.1.2 Instruments: Marriage, Alliance, War and Trade
44.1.3 England’s Standing in Europe
44.1.4 Continuity and Change in Methods
44.2.1 From Traditional Enemies to Accommodation
44.2.2 Scotland: Ayton (1497), Flodden (1513) and Rough Wooing
44.2.3 Treaty of Edinburgh (1560) and the French Departure
44.2.4 France: Etaples (1492), Henry VIII’s Invasions and Somerset
44.2.5 The Treaty of Blois (1572) and Later Relations
44.3.1 Trade, Embargoes and Strategic Security
44.3.2 From Peace to War with Spain
44.3.3 Key Settlements: Medina del Campo (1489) and Alliances
44.3.4 Divorce, Mary and Philip, and the Dutch Revolt
44.3.5 The Armada (1588) and its Aftermath
44.4.1 Economic and Financial Consequences
44.4.2 Dynastic and Political Effects
44.4.3 Religious Impacts and Ireland
44.4.4 Domestic Policy Adjustments
44.5.1 The Situation in 1509 and Henry VII’s Legacy
44.5.2 Motives, Renaissance Context and European Rivals
44.5.3 Objectives in France and Scotland; Causes of War
44.5.4 Campaigns and Results: Flodden (1513) and the Spurs (1513)
44.5.5 Grand Diplomacy: Treaty of London (1518) and Field of Cloth of Gold (1520)
44.5.6 Roles of Henry, Wolsey and Catherine
44.6.1 Strategic Significance and the 1557–1558 Context
44.6.2 Garrison Condition and Costs
44.6.3 Anglo-French-Spanish Relations and War in 1557
44.6.4 The Loss of Calais in 1558: Reasons and Events
44.6.5 Reactions and Settlements: 1558–1559
44.6.6 French Views and Overall Evaluation
44.7.1 Causes and Motives: Cadiz (1587) to Santa Cruz’s Death
44.7.2 Elizabeth’s Preparations and Naval Leadership
44.7.3 Spanish Forces and Materiel
44.7.4 Campaign and Comparative Advantages
44.7.5 Reasons for Defeat and Contemporary Reactions
44.7.6 Significance and Turning Points
45.1.1 The Church in the 1490s and Humanism
45.1.2 Early Reformers and Papal Initiatives
45.1.3 Catholic or Counter Reformation
45.1.4 Methods, Regions and Social Responses
45.2.1 The Papacy’s Role in Reform
45.2.2 Inquisition and Index
45.2.3 Councils: Lateran V (1512–1517) and Trent (1545–1563)
45.2.4 Society of Jesus and New Orders
45.2.5 Oratory of Divine Love, Ursulines and Theatines
45.2.6 Implementing Decrees and Oversight
45.3.1 Humanists and Early Reform: Erasmus and Cisneros
45.3.2 Papal Leadership: Paul III to Clement VIII
45.3.3 Founders and Missionaries: Loyola and Francis Xavier
45.3.4 Catholic Monarchs: Charles V and Philip II
45.3.5 Episcopal Reformers and Charity: Carlo Borromeo and Vincent de Paul
45.3.6 Mysticism and Female Reform: Teresa of Avila
45.4.1 Spain, Italy and the Holy Roman Empire
45.4.2 France and the Netherlands
45.4.3 Eastern Europe, South America and the Far East
45.4.4 Opposition, Obstacles and the Laity
45.4.5 Artistic and Literary Expressions
45.5.1 Pre-Tridentine Desire for Reform
45.5.2 Paul III and the Road to the First Session
45.5.3 Debate and Decisions in the First Session
45.5.4 Later Sessions and Papal Roles
45.5.5 Tridentine Decrees and Their Content
45.5.6 Impact and Implementation of Trent
45.6.1 Background: Inquisition and Religious Fear
45.6.2 Responding to Protestantism and New Currents
45.6.3 Motives for Reform and Support for Inquisition
45.6.4 Religious Policies in Spain
45.6.5 ‘Most Catholic Monarch’: Image and Reality
45.7.1 Reform and Huguenot Relations Before 1572
45.7.2 Causes, Motives and Catherine de’ Medici
45.7.3 Coligny and the Netherlands
45.7.4 Parisian Violence and Provincial Spread
45.7.5 Consequences and Religious Significance
46.1.1 Sultans: Accession, Character and Absolutism
46.1.2 Administration and the Military Tradition
46.1.3 Devshirme, Janissaries and the Army
46.1.4 Central Government: Porte, Divan and Grand Vezir
46.1.5 Religion, Law and Finance
46.2.1 Motives and Weaknesses of Opponents
46.2.2 The Balkans and Constantinople (1453)
46.2.3 The Mediterranean
46.2.4 The Levant and Trade Routes
46.2.5 Habsburg Wars and European Impact
46.3.1 Principles of Conquest and the Timar
46.3.2 Society: Enslavement, Class and Devshirme
46.3.3 Peace, Stability and Loss of Freedom
46.3.4 Meritocracy, Timar and Sipahis
46.3.5 Religion and Provincial Administration
46.4.1 Spain: North Africa, the Western Mediterranean and Moriscos
46.4.2 Lepanto (1571) and the Spanish Threat
46.4.3 France and the Franco-Ottoman Alliance
46.4.4 Holy Roman Empire and Austrian Habsburgs
46.4.5 Venice, Cyprus and Lepanto (1571)
46.5.1 Byzantium’s Condition and Ottoman Ambitions
46.5.2 Mehmed II, Janissaries and Jihad
46.5.3 Course and Conduct of the Siege
46.5.4 European and Muslim Reactions
46.5.5 Significance and Economic Effects
46.6.1 Hungary in 1526 and King Louis
46.6.2 Ottoman Ambitions and Suleiman
46.6.3 Events and Bloodshed
46.6.4 European Reactions and Habsburg Threat
46.6.5 Aftermath and Consequences for Hungary
46.7.1 After Malta (1565) and Suleiman’s Death (1566)
46.7.2 Holy League Aims and Naval Warfare
46.7.3 Course of Battle and Reasons for Defeat
46.7.4 Turning Point
46.7.5 Consequences for the Empire
47.1.1 Royal Authority and Nation-State Development
47.1.2 Authority, Reputation and Domestic Rule
47.1.3 Power, Centralisation and the Nobility
47.1.4 Unification, Centralisation and Absolutism
47.2.1 Language, Customs, Legal Codes and Courts
47.2.2 Taxation and Privileges
47.2.3 Royal Control of Provinces and Estates
47.2.4 Feudal Loyalties and Provincialism
47.2.5 Noble Privileges, Clientage and Bourbon (1523)
47.3.1 Religion’s Role in the Nation State
47.3.2 The Catholic Church’s Role
47.3.3 Religious Disunity: Humanism to Calvinism
47.3.4 Civil Wars and Stability
47.4.1 Habsburg-Valois Wars (1498–1559): Legacy
47.4.2 From Italy to the French Civil Wars
47.4.3 French Wars of Religion (1562–1598): Overview
47.4.4 Wars’ Comparative Contribution to State-building
47.4.5 Stability, Unification and the Monarchy
47.5.1 Powers, Strengths and Limits of the Monarch
47.5.2 Relations with Church, Law, Parlements and Nobility
47.5.3 Finance and Political-Religious-Legal Restraints
47.5.4 Venality and Office-holding
47.5.5 Fontainebleau and Cultural Patronage
47.6.1 Causes and Paris, August 1572
47.6.2 Faction, Coligny and the Netherlands
47.6.3 Catherine de’ Medici and the Guise
47.6.4 Atrocities, Provincial Spread and Death Toll
47.6.5 Impact and Consequences
47.7.1 Navarre Inheritance, Religion and Conversion
47.7.2 Character and Military Ability
47.7.3 Accession Problems: After Henry III’s Assassination (1589)
47.7.4 Victory, Peace and 1598 Settlements
47.7.5 Edict of Nantes (1598) and Jesuits (1599)
47.7.6 Sully’s Achievements, Assassination (1610) and Legacy
48.1.1 Crown, Court and Parliament: Attitudes to Expansion
48.1.2 Key Individuals: Drake, Raleigh and Clive
48.1.3 Imperial Priorities: Routes, Trade and the West Indies
48.1.4 Domestic Developments: Religion, Civil War and Interregnum
48.1.5 State Capacity: Navy, Bureaucracy and Enlightenment
48.1.6 Measuring Outcomes: Successes and Failures
48.2.1 Profit and Control: Privateering, Mercantilism and Companies
48.2.2 Plantations and Labour Systems
48.2.3 Economic Infrastructure: Farming, Finance and Ports
48.2.4 Metropole–Colony Relations
48.2.5 Local Alliances and Treaties
48.2.6 Taxation and Law-making
48.3.1 Britain: Political Prestige and the Royal Navy
48.3.2 Britain: Economy, Society and Knowledge
48.3.3 Britain: Goods and Consumption
48.3.4 Colonies: Taxation, Trade and Demography
48.3.5 Colonies: Politics, Power and Indigenous Peoples
48.3.6 Opposition and Resistance
48.4.1 Alliances and Rivalries
48.4.2 Wars with Spain and the Dutch
48.4.3 Wars of Spanish and Austrian Succession
48.4.4 Seven Years’ War and its Imperial Consequences
48.4.5 War of American Independence
48.4.6 Ports, Bases and Trading Posts
48.5.1 Nature and Extent of Privateering (1558–1603)
48.5.2 Motives, Methods and Success (1558–1603)
48.5.3 Consequences: Economy, Politics and War (1558–1603)
48.5.4 Elizabeth, Court and Parliament (1558–1603)
48.5.5 Foreign Relations and Spain (1558–1603)
48.6.1 Metropolitan Attitudes and British Upheavals (1660–1713)
48.6.2 Colonial Governance and Relationships (1660–1713)
48.6.3 Economic Policy: Navigation Acts (1660–1713)
48.6.4 Rebellions and European Wars (1660–1713)
48.6.5 Colonies in European Power Politics (1660–1713)
48.7.1 British Aims and Metropolitan Attitudes (c.1730–1773)
48.7.2 War and Strategy in India (c.1730–1773)
48.7.3 Robert Clive: Character and Significance (c.1730–1773)
48.7.4 Measuring British Success (c.1730–1773)
48.7.5 Economic and Political Developments (c.1730–1773)
48.7.6 Foreign Powers and Consequences for India (c.1730–1773)
49.1.1 Urban and Rural; Popular and Elite Culture
49.1.2 Ritual, Pageants and Festivals of Misrule
49.1.3 Public Humiliation and Moral Regulation
49.1.4 Magic and Belief in Society
49.1.5 Challenges from Religious Change
49.1.6 Political and Economic Change; Social Control
49.2.1 From Papal Bull (1484) to Malleus (1486)
49.2.2 Religion and Confessional Strife
49.2.3 Economic Stress and Social Structure
49.2.4 Culture, Rationalism and Enlightenment
49.2.5 Medicine, Remedies and Authority
49.2.6 Wars, Plague and the Mini Ice Age
49.3.1 Geography and Regional Variation
49.3.2 Towns and Countryside
49.3.3 Religion and Confession
49.3.4 Gender and Age
49.3.5 Social and Employment Backgrounds
49.4.1 Legal Systems and Jurisdictions
49.4.2 Trials, Torture and Confessions
49.4.3 Belief, Reformation and Fear
49.4.4 Impact on Legal Procedure
49.5.1 Culture and Reformation (c.1590–1630)
49.5.2 Change, Order and Conformity (c.1590–1630)
49.5.3 Persecution: Scale and Geography (c.1590–1630)
49.5.4 Authorities and Social Impact (c.1590–1630)
49.6.1 Context and Order (1645–1647)
49.6.2 Regulation and Cultural Challenge (1645–1647)
49.6.3 Persecution Patterns (1645–1647)
49.6.4 Authority and Social Effects (1645–1647)
49.7.1 Contexts and Order
49.7.2 Imperial and Legal Connections
49.7.3 Persecution Dynamics
49.7.4 Authorities and Consequences
50.1.1 Theory and Extent of Absolutism
50.1.2 Central and Provincial Administration
50.1.3 Versailles, Image and the King’s Legal Position
50.1.4 Finance, Taxation and Noble Privileges
50.1.5 Ministers and Statecraft
50.2.1 The ‘Most Christian King’ and the Church
50.2.2 Gallicanism and Papal Relations
50.2.3 Huguenots: Alais (1629), Dragonnades and Revocation (1685)
50.2.4 Jansenism and Royal Responses
50.3.1 Orders and Prosperity
50.3.2 Court Unrest and Conspiracy
50.3.3 Popular Rebellion and Hardship
50.3.4 Consequences for Governance
50.4.1 Foreign Policy Aims and 1610–1635
50.4.2 Thirty Years’ War and Its Impact
50.4.3 Louis XIV’s Wars
50.4.4 Turning-Point Treaties
50.4.5 Consequences for Ascendancy
50.5.1 Authority and Court Politics (1630)
50.5.2 Raison d’État and Methods
50.5.3 Policy Toward Nobility and Court
50.5.4 Patronage and Clientage
50.6.1 Causes and Context (1648–1653)
50.6.2 Estates and Defeats (1648)
50.6.3 Nature and Leadership (1648–1653)
50.6.4 Conflict and Royal Experience (1648–1653)
50.6.5 Settlement and Significance (1653)
50.7.1 Culture and Spectacle
50.7.2 Architecture and Material Culture
50.7.3 Court Politics and Control
50.7.4 Economy and Absolutism
50.7.5 International Prestige and Reactions
51.1.1 Origins from 1789 and Napoleonic Impact
51.1.2 Competing National Visions
51.1.3 Revolutions and the Frankfurt Parliament (1848/1849)
51.1.4 Mass Nationalism and Its Appeal
51.1.5 Kulturkampf, Pan-Germanism and Radicalism
51.1.6 War and Defeat
51.2.1 Economic Nationalism and Modernisation
51.2.2 Zollverein and Integration
51.2.3 Industrialisation and Socialism
51.2.4 Railways and Infrastructure
51.2.5 Trade Debates and Policy
51.2.6 Economy and Unity
51.3.1 Leaders and Statecraft
51.3.2 External Pressures and Austria’s Decline
51.3.3 War and Unification
51.3.4 Versailles and Political Extremes (1919)
51.4.1 Degrees of Unity
51.4.2 Diversity and Division
51.4.3 Prussia and Constitutional Change
51.4.4 Minorities and Inclusion
51.4.5 Parties and Dominance
51.5.1 Ideas and Social Forces (1848/1849)
51.5.2 Frankfurt Parliament’s Consequences (1848/1849)
51.5.3 Economic Causes (1848/1849)
51.5.4 Authority and Repression (1848/1849)
51.5.5 Support and Opposition (1848/1849)
51.6.1 Bismarck and Popular Feeling (1867–1871)
51.6.2 War with France and Unity (1867–1871)
51.6.3 Reasons for Prussian Victory (1867–1871)
51.6.4 Consequences and Constitution (1867–1871)
51.6.5 Statesmanship or Context (1862–1871)
51.7.1 Kaiser and Course Change (1884–1914)
51.7.2 Foreign Policy and the Reichstag (1884–1914)
51.7.3 Army, Navy and Society (1884–1914)
51.7.4 Economy and Power (1884–1914)
51.7.5 Responsibility for War (1914)
52.1.1 Generalship and Decision-making
52.1.2 Soldiers and Force Quality
52.1.3 Strategy and Campaign Aims
52.1.4 Tactics and the Offensive
52.1.5 Theory and Total War
52.2.1 Industrialisation and Communications
52.2.2 Transport Revolutions
52.2.3 Small Arms and Artillery
52.2.4 Automatic Weapons and Armour
52.2.5 Air Power
52.3.1 Alliances and War Plans
52.3.2 Organisation, Command and Control
52.4.1 State Organisation and Supply
52.4.2 Opinion, Morale and Media
52.4.3 Censorship and Conscription
52.4.4 Economics and Mobilisation
52.5.1 Leadership and Troops (1792–1802)
52.5.2 Tactics and Strategy (1792–1802)
52.5.3 Signals and Weapons (1792–1802)
52.5.4 Alliances and Command (1792–1802)
52.5.5 Mass and Resources (1792–1802)
52.6.1 Leadership and Troops (1861–1865)
52.6.2 Tactics and Strategy (1861–1865)
52.6.3 Industry, Transport and Weapons (1861–1865)
52.6.4 Alliances and Command (1861–1865)
52.6.5 Opinion, Conscription and Resources (1861–1865)
52.7.1 Leadership, Troops and Theory (1914–1918)
52.7.2 Tactics, Strategy and Total War (1914–1918)
52.7.3 Signals, Industry and Transport (1914–1918)
52.7.4 Weapons, Alliances and Command (1914–1918)
52.7.5 State, Opinion and Resources (1914–1918)
52.1 The impact of factors directly related to the conduct of war52.2 The impact of technological change52.3 Planning and preparation52.4 The relationship between relevant domestic factors and warfare52.5 The French Revolutionary Wars 1792–180252.6 The American Civil War 1861–186552.7 The Western Front and the First World War 1914–1918
53.1.1 Revolutionary Nationalism: Tone and the United Irishmen (1791–1798)
53.1.2 Young Ireland, Fenians and the Land League (1840s–1880s)
53.1.3 Sinn Féin, Easter Rising 1916 and Anglo-Irish War 1919–1921
53.1.4 Constitutional Nationalism: O’Connell and Catholic Emancipation 1829
53.1.5 Parnell, Redmond and the Home Rule Movement
53.1.6 Cultural Nationalism 1798–1921 and the Catholic Church
53.2.1 Protestant Ascendancy and Decline from the 1870s
53.2.2 Unionism and Ulster Unionism 1886–1921: Organisation and Strategy
53.2.3 Conservatives, Whigs and Liberals: Policies and Leaders
53.2.4 Anglican and Presbyterian Churches in Support
53.2.5 Covenant and Militarisation: UVF and Strategy 1912–1914
53.3.1 Creating the Act of Union (1800–1801)
53.3.2 Catholic Emancipation 1829 within the Union
53.3.3 Administrative and Educational Reforms
53.3.4 Land and Local Government Reforms
53.3.5 Home Rule and Partition 1920–1921
53.4.1 Agrarian Under-development and Population Pressure
53.4.2 Land and Economic Issues and Nationalism
53.4.3 The Great Famine 1845–1849: Economic and Political Impact
53.4.4 Industrialisation and Ulster
53.4.5 North–South and Regional Differences
53.5.1 Late Eighteenth-Century Politics and France’s Impact
53.5.2 British Responses: Fitzwilliam, Lake and Castlereagh
53.5.3 The 1798 Rising: Causes, Leadership and Support
53.5.4 Grattan’s Parliament and Its Limits
53.5.5 Pitt and the Act of Union 1800
53.5.6 Emmet’s Rising 1803 and Revolutionary Nationalism
53.6.1 Catholic Association Strategy and Government Response
53.6.2 O’Connell’s Leadership to 1829 and Key Elections
53.6.3 Catholic Emancipation 1829: Reasons and Impact
53.6.4 O’Connell, the Whigs and the Tithe War
53.6.5 Lichfield House Compact and Reform to 1841
53.7.1 Redmond, Asquith and Liberal Policy 1908–1914
53.7.2 The 1912 Home Rule Bill and Exclusion Negotiations
53.7.3 Unionist Tactics: Carson, Craig and Bonar Law
53.7.4 Militarising Ulster: Ulster Volunteers 1913
53.7.5 Nationalists and the Curragh Mutiny 1914
53.7.6 1914: Enactment, Suspension and War
54.1.1 Manchu Rule in 1839 and Obstacles under Cixi
54.1.2 Reform after 1900 and the 1911 Revolution
54.1.3 Sun Yat-sen, the Republic and Yuan Shikai
54.1.4 The Guomindang and Jiang Jieshi
54.1.5 Communist Takeover and Mao’s Government
54.1.6 After 1975 and Deng Xiaoping
54.2.1 Economy in 1839: Railways, Trade, Industry and Agrarian Problems
54.2.2 Guomindang Industrial and Urban Development
54.2.3 Land Reform under Communism
54.2.4 The Four Year Plans and Planning
54.2.5 The Great Leap Forward and Later Maoist Policy
54.2.6 Economy after 1975 and Regional Variation
54.3.1 Manchu Society and Confucianism
54.3.2 Women and Rural Society
54.3.3 Late Manchu Social Change and the Boxers
54.3.4 After 1911: Social Developments and Communism’s Rise
54.3.5 After 1949: Society and the Cultural Revolution
54.3.6 After 1975: Middle Class and New Lifestyles
54.4.1 Foreign Influence and Unequal Treaties
54.4.2 Boxer Rebellion and International Reaction
54.4.3 Japanese Aggression and War 1898–1945
54.4.4 Jiang Jieshi and the Superpowers
54.4.5 The Korean War and After 1949
54.4.6 Regional Power in South Asia
54.5.1 China and the West by 1839
54.5.2 Causes and the Opium Trade
54.5.3 Commissioner Lin and British Reaction
54.5.4 War, Ch’uan-pi Convention 1841 and Treaties
54.5.5 Results and the ‘Unequal Treaties’
54.6.1 Resentment, the 1898 Coup and Hardship
54.6.2 Origins and Court Links of the Boxers
54.6.3 Attacks, Southeast China’s Refusal and Foreign Forces
54.6.4 Defeat and the Boxer Protocol 1901
54.6.5 Manchuria, the Open Door and Reputation
54.7.1 Origins, 1966 Crisis and Leap Forward Legacy
54.7.2 Mao’s Concerns and Leadership Struggles
54.7.3 Key Figures: Lin Biao, Chen Boda, Jiang Qing, Gang of Four
54.7.4 Politburo Changes and Army Influence (1966)
54.7.5 Red Guards, Demobilisation 1969 and Lin Biao’s Death 1971
54.7.6 Economic, Political and Social Effects
54.1 The government and rulers of China 1839–198954.2 The economy of China 1839–198954.3 Society in China 1839–198954.4 China and the wider world54.5 The First Opium War and its impact54.6 The Boxer Uprising54.7 The Cultural Revolution
55.1.1 Autocracy, Dictatorship and Totalitarianism
55.1.2 Central Administration and Control
55.1.3 Repression and Enforcement
55.1.4 Reform: Extent and Impact
55.1.5 Opposition Before and After 1917
55.1.6 Local Government and Attitudes to Change
55.2.1 Peasants: Emancipation, Land Banks and Famines
55.2.2 Industrial Workers under the Tsars
55.2.3 War Communism and the NEP
55.2.4 Five Year Plans and Collectivisation
55.2.5 Virgin Lands and Social Limits
55.2.6 Reasons for and Extent of Change
55.3.1 Crimean and Japanese Wars
55.3.2 Revolutions of 1905 and 1917
55.3.3 First and Second World Wars
55.3.4 Cold War Effects
55.4.1 Polish Revolt 1863 and Asian Expansion
55.4.2 Russification and the Borderlands
55.4.3 Finland and the Baltic Provinces
55.4.4 War, Brest-Litovsk and Nationalities
55.4.5 Russo-Polish War and Post-1945 Advance
55.5.1 Crimean War and Reform Aims
55.5.2 Government and Central Administration
55.5.3 Extent and Impact of Domestic Reforms
55.5.4 Opposition and Effectiveness
55.5.5 Urban and Rural Conditions
55.5.6 Limits on Freedom and Overall Change
55.6.1 Nature and Domestic Policies
55.6.2 Repression and Reform
55.6.3 Opposition and Social Conditions
55.6.4 Limits on Freedom and Economic Change
55.6.5 War’s Impact and Overthrow
55.7.1 Aims and Government (1956–1964)
55.7.2 Opposition and Repression (1956–1964)
55.7.3 Reform and Living Conditions (1956–1964)
55.7.4 Freedom and Economic Policy (1956–1964)
55.7.5 Cold War and Khrushchev’s Fall (1964)
55.1 The nature of government55.2 The impact of dictatorial regimes on the economy and society of the Russian Empire and the USSR55.3 Impact of war and revolution on the development of the Russian Empire and the USSR55.4 Russia: Empire, nationalities and satellite states55.5 Alexander II’s domestic reforms55.6 The Provisional Government55.7 Khrushchev in power 1956–1964
56.1.1 Position in 1865 and Reconstruction
56.1.2 African American Leaders and Strategies
56.1.3 Federal and State Governments’ Roles
56.1.4 Pro- and Anti–Civil Rights Groups
56.1.5 The Civil Rights Movement to 1992
56.2.1 Unions and Labour in 1865
56.2.2 Immigration, Industrialisation and Union Growth
56.2.3 Federal Governments: Support and Opposition
56.2.4 World Wars and Labour
56.2.5 The 1960s, Chavez and the UFW
56.2.6 The Reagan Era
56.3.1 Position in 1865 and the Plains Wars 1854–1877
56.3.2 The Dawes Act 1887 and Allotment
56.3.3 Citizenship in 1924 and the New Deal
56.3.4 AIM in the 1960s and 1970s
56.3.5 Supreme Court and Pressure Groups
56.4.1 Position in 1865 and Prohibition Campaigns
56.4.2 Suffrage Movement and Victory
56.4.3 New Deal and War Mobilisations
56.4.4 Feminism, Roe v. Wade 1973 and Opposition
56.4.5 Equal Rights Amendment Campaign and Work
56.5.1 Progress and Limits c.1875–c.1895
56.5.2 Industrialisation’s Varied Impact
56.5.3 Government Policy and Attitudes
56.5.4 Westward Expansion and Civil Rights
56.5.5 Regional Divides and Inequality
56.6.1 Status by 1932
56.6.2 Roosevelt’s Motives toward Minorities
56.6.3 Economic Status and Civil Rights Changes
56.6.4 Opposition and the Second New Deal
56.6.5 Workers and Unions: Gains and Limits
56.7.1 Malcolm X: Aims and Motivations
56.7.2 Methods and Change over Time
56.7.3 Reasons for the Rise of Black Power
56.7.4 Movement Development and Wider Impact
56.7.5 Successes, Limits and Relationships
56.1 African Americans56.2 Trade Union and Labour Rights56.3 Native American Indians56.4 Women56.5 Civil rights in the ‘Gilded Age’ c.1875–c.189556.6 The New Deal and civil rights56.7 Malcolm X and Black Power
57.1.1 Empire in 1857 and Explanations for Growth
57.1.2 New Imperialism c.1875–1914 and Free-Trade Imperialism
57.1.3 Berlin Conference 1884–1885 and Rivalry
57.1.4 Economics: Investment, Capitalism and Metropole
57.1.5 Governance, Security and Trusteeship
57.1.6 Men on the Spot, Elites and Technology
57.2.1 Movements: Peaceful and Violent
57.2.2 Reasons for Development
57.2.3 Regional Examples: South Africa, India and Sudan
57.2.4 Malaya and Kenya
57.2.5 Nationalism: Gandhi, Kenyatta, Nkrumah and Pan-Africanism
57.2.6 Methods, Success and Consequences
57.3.1 Periphery: Work, Health and Identity
57.3.2 Periphery: Culture, Religion and Education
57.3.3 Periphery: Law, Order and Sport
57.3.4 Britain: Opinion and Representation
57.3.5 Britain: Arts, Politics and Economy
57.4.1 Rivalry and ‘Splendid Isolation’
57.4.2 Retreat from Isolation and Colonial Wars
57.4.3 Empire and the World Wars
57.4.4 League of Nations, UN and the USA
57.4.5 Cold War, the Commonwealth and Europe
57.5.1 India in 1857 and Rebellion’s Course
57.5.2 Reasons for Failure of the Uprising
57.5.3 Consequences within India and Internationally
57.5.4 Changing British Rule and Methods
57.6.1 Status in 1914 and Causes of Tension
57.6.2 The First World War and Balfour Declaration
57.6.3 The British Mandate: Uprisings and Immigration
57.6.4 Partition in 1948: Reasons and Consequences
57.7.1 Reasons for Rising Nationalism (1945–1965)
57.7.2 Mau Mau Rebellion: Causes, Nature and Impact
57.7.3 Settlers and the Indian Population
57.7.4 Kenyatta and Leadership
57.7.5 Macmillan and Changing British Policy
57.7.6 Independence Settlement and International Context
57.1 The governance and administration of the Empire57.2 Opposition to British Rule57.3 The impact of imperial power on the periphery and Britain57.4 The British Empire and its impact on international relations57.5 British India: The War of 1857 and its consequences to 187657.6 Palestine 1914–194857.7 Nationalism in Kenya 1945–1965
58.1.1 Britain and France to Suez 1956: Aims, Policies and Methods
58.1.2 Russia and the United States to 2011
58.1.3 League of Nations and UN: Mandates and Peace
58.1.4 Instruments of Control: Mandates, Coups, Occupations, Bases, Client States
58.1.5 Great Power Wars: 1914 to Gulf Wars 1987, 1991, 2003
58.1.6 Oil and Strategy: Seven Sisters, Mossadeq 1953, OPEC
58.2.1 Zionism, the Jewish Agency and World Wars I–II
58.2.2 Israel 1948: Statehood and War
58.2.3 Wars and Invasions: 1956, 1967, 1973; Lebanon 1982, 2006; Gaza 2008
58.2.4 Occupied Territories: Settlements, the Wall, Land and Water
58.2.5 Leadership and Diplomacy: Sadat, Camp David, Oslo, Road Map
58.2.6 Palestinians: Refugees, PLO/Arafat, Intifadas and the Palestinian Authority
58.3.1 Arabism 1908–1970: Nasser, Suez and the United Arab Republic
58.3.2 Regimes and Atatürk’s Secular State
58.3.3 Monarchies: Jordan, Saudi Arabia and the Wahhabi Movement
58.3.4 Syria: Baathism, the Assads and Risings to 2011
58.3.5 Iraq: From Faisal to Saddam Hussein and the USA
58.3.6 Iran: From the Shah (1925) to the Ayatollahs (1979)
58.4.1 Sunni and Shi‘a in the Arab States
58.4.2 Egypt and the Muslim Brotherhood from 1920
58.4.3 Iran and the Islamic Revolution
58.4.4 Hezbollah, Hamas and Al Qaeda
58.4.5 Christian and Jewish Communities: Lebanon, Armenians, Copts and Israel
58.4.6 Ethnic Minorities and the Middle Eastern Diaspora
58.5.1 Partition Plans in WWI: Sykes–Picot, Balfour, McMahon–Hussein
58.5.2 British Mandates: Palestine and Transjordan
58.5.3 Iraq and Oil: British Companies and Faisal
58.5.4 Arabs, Jews and Proposed Solutions
58.5.5 British Egypt: Policy Challenges and Strategy
58.5.6 World War II, Biltmore Declaration and 1948 Withdrawal
58.6.1 Arab Attitudes and Israel’s Declaration in 1948
58.6.2 First Arab–Israeli War 1948–1949: Causes and Course
58.6.3 Israel’s Survival and Arab Responses
58.6.4 Suez Crisis 1956 and the Second Arab–Israeli War
58.6.5 Explaining Israeli Success to 1956
58.6.6 Impacts on Palestinians and Arab States
58.7.1 Nasser and Pan-Arabism (1952–1970)
58.7.2 Arab Socialism: Nationalisation, Land Reform, Development from Above
58.7.3 Relations with Britain, France, the US and USSR
58.7.4 Suez 1956 and the United Arab Republic 1958–1961
58.7.5 Arab Cold War 1956–1963 and Non-Aligned Movement
58.7.6 1967 War and the Decline of Pan-Arabism

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