OCR Specification focus:
‘Role in Europe, including attempts to join and membership of the EEC and debates over Europe.’
Britain’s relationship with Europe between 1951 and 1997 was a central issue in domestic and foreign policy, shaped by economic concerns, sovereignty debates, and shifting international priorities.
Early Attempts to Join the EEC (1950s–1960s)
The European Economic Community (EEC), established by the Treaty of Rome in 1957, aimed to promote economic integration among six founding members: France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. Britain initially chose not to join, preferring links with the Commonwealth and the United States. However, by the early 1960s Britain’s sluggish economic growth compared with the EEC’s dynamism prompted reconsideration.
1961 application by Harold Macmillan’s government: Britain sought entry, motivated by concerns of being left behind economically.
French vetoes by President Charles de Gaulle (1963 and 1967): De Gaulle doubted Britain’s commitment to European integration, citing close ties to the USA and reluctance to embrace supranational authority.
Supranational: An authority or institution that operates above the level of individual nation-states, with power to make binding decisions on its members.
These rejections delayed Britain’s entry, fuelling debates over sovereignty and economic competitiveness.
Britain Joins the EEC (1973)
In 1970, Edward Heath became Prime Minister and made EEC membership a priority. Negotiations were successful after de Gaulle’s resignation in 1969. Britain, alongside Denmark and Ireland, entered the EEC on 1 January 1973.
Map of the European Community (EC) in 1973, showing the three new member states: the United Kingdom, Denmark and Ireland. Existing member states are clearly differentiated, illustrating the first enlargement of the Community. The visual highlights Britain’s shift from Commonwealth preferences to European integration. Source
Heath was a strong pro-European, believing membership would modernise Britain’s economy.
Membership required acceptance of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) and Common External Tariff, both controversial for British farmers and consumers.
The accession treaty symbolised a major shift away from imperial preferences and towards European integration.
Labour and the 1975 Referendum
When Harold Wilson’s Labour government came to power in 1974, divisions over Europe were clear:
The Labour Party was split: pro-Europeans argued membership secured economic stability, while opponents feared loss of sovereignty and negative impacts on workers.
Wilson renegotiated Britain’s terms of membership, particularly concerning budget contributions and agricultural policy.
The 1975 Referendum asked the public whether Britain should remain in the EEC.
67% voted “Yes”, endorsing continued membership.
Results map of the 1975 UK referendum on continued EEC membership, displayed by nation with Yes vote percentages. This vector map clarifies regional variation while underscoring the overall national endorsement to remain. As an SVG, it is clean and scalable to high resolution for teaching use. Source
This was Britain’s first national referendum and temporarily settled the debate.
Conservative Europe Policy under Thatcher (1979–1990)
Margaret Thatcher’s premiership marked another shift in Britain’s European relations:
Initially supportive of the EEC as a free-trade area, she opposed deeper political integration.
Key issue: Britain’s budget contribution, which Thatcher argued was disproportionately high.
Famous demand: “I want my money back”, leading to the 1984 rebate, a permanent reduction in Britain’s payments.
Thatcher signed the Single European Act (1986), which deepened economic integration through the creation of a single market, but she remained wary of supranational political authority.
Her resistance to federalist ideas and criticism of further European integration (notably in the 1988 Bruges speech) highlighted growing Euroscepticism within the Conservative Party.
Euroscepticism: Opposition to political or economic integration within the European Union, often rooted in concerns over sovereignty, identity, or economic control.
Major, Maastricht, and Divisions (1990–1997)
When John Major succeeded Thatcher in 1990, he faced the challenge of managing Conservative divisions over Europe.
Major signed the Maastricht Treaty (1992), which transformed the EEC into the European Union (EU), committing members to closer political and economic union.
Official photograph of the Maastricht Treaty signing ceremony (7 February 1992). The image depicts heads of government and officials gathered in the plenary hall with member-state flags, marking the creation of the European Union. Note: the wider scene includes ceremonial context beyond the UK focus, but it directly documents the treaty referenced in the syllabus. Source
Britain negotiated opt-outs from two key areas:
The single currency (euro).
The Social Chapter, which concerned workers’ rights and employment legislation.
Despite these opt-outs, Maastricht sparked fierce opposition within the Conservative Party, deepening internal rifts.
Parliamentary rebellions against ratification of the treaty highlighted the extent of divisions and weakened Major’s authority.
The period also witnessed economic crises, notably “Black Wednesday” (1992), when Britain was forced to exit the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), undermining confidence in European economic cooperation.
The Broader Debate: Sovereignty vs. Integration
Throughout 1951–1997, debates over Britain’s role in Europe consistently revolved around two themes:
Economic benefits: Access to larger markets, modernisation of industry, and influence within a major trading bloc.
Sovereignty concerns: Fear of ceding authority to European institutions, challenges to parliamentary supremacy, and the preservation of national independence.
These tensions shaped party politics:
Labour oscillated between scepticism in the 1970s and cautious acceptance under leaders like Neil Kinnock.
Conservatives became increasingly divided, with pro-market advocates supporting Europe, and Eurosceptics opposing deeper integration.
Key Turning Points
1961 & 1967 applications: Demonstrated Britain’s economic need to join Europe but faced French opposition.
1973 entry: A watershed moment, ending Britain’s isolation from continental integration.
1975 referendum: Provided popular legitimacy for continued membership.
1984 rebate: Asserted Britain’s right to fair treatment within the EEC.
1992 Maastricht Treaty: Redefined Britain’s relationship with Europe, but at the cost of deepening domestic political divisions.
FAQ
De Gaulle believed Britain’s strong ties to the United States would undermine the independence of the EEC. He also saw Britain’s economy as less compatible with continental Europe, relying too heavily on global trade links and the Commonwealth.
By rejecting Britain in 1963 and 1967, de Gaulle sought to protect the vision of a Europe led by France and West Germany, without what he saw as an Anglo-American influence diluting integration.
The campaign exposed deep party divisions, but it was notable for the broad pro-European coalition. Both leading Conservatives and many Labour figures supported staying in.
The “Yes” campaign stressed economic stability and security, while the “No” campaign highlighted threats to sovereignty.
Mass media, including television broadcasts, played a large role in mobilising public opinion, with the pro-European side benefitting from greater organisational resources.
The Bruges speech criticised the idea of a centralised European superstate. Thatcher argued Europe should remain a partnership of sovereign states rather than evolve into a federal union.
This speech gave momentum to the emerging Eurosceptic wing of the Conservative Party. Many saw it as a turning point that deepened internal divisions and set the stage for future conflicts over integration.
The rebate reduced Britain’s financial contributions to the EEC budget, addressing concerns that Britain was paying disproportionately compared with benefits received.
Britain contributed heavily due to reliance on food imports but gained little from the Common Agricultural Policy.
The rebate was permanent and became symbolic of Britain’s more hard-headed approach to Europe.
It reinforced Thatcher’s image as a defender of national interests within Europe.
Black Wednesday saw Britain forced to withdraw from the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) after failing to keep the pound stable within agreed limits.
The event damaged the Conservative government’s reputation for economic competence. It also increased scepticism about Britain’s involvement in European monetary systems, strengthening opposition to adopting the single currency.
For Eurosceptics, it became proof that closer economic integration with Europe carried risks Britain could not control.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Britain finally join the European Economic Community (EEC), and who was the Prime Minister at the time?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correct year: 1973.
1 mark for correct Prime Minister: Edward Heath.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why the Maastricht Treaty (1992) was controversial in Britain.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each well-explained reason.
Award 1 mark for identifying a relevant reason.
Award an additional 1–2 marks for development and explanation of that reason.
Possible valid points:
Loss of sovereignty: Concerns that the Treaty deepened political integration, limiting Britain’s parliamentary authority. (1 mark identification + up to 2 marks explanation).
Economic integration: Commitment to economic union created fears over future adoption of the single currency, which some believed threatened Britain’s control over economic policy. (1 mark identification + up to 2 marks explanation).
Social Chapter: Debate over workers’ rights provisions caused controversy, though Britain negotiated an opt-out; Eurosceptics still saw this as creeping integration. (1 mark identification + up to 2 marks explanation).
Maximum 6 marks.
