16.4.4 Negotiations Saladin & Consequences Third Crusade West

OCR Specification focus:
‘negotiations with Saladin; consequences of the Third Crusade for the West, Outremer and the Islamic world.’

The negotiations between Richard I and Saladin, following years of conflict during the Third Crusade, profoundly shaped the political and religious landscape of the eastern Mediterranean and influenced both Christian and Muslim worlds for decades.

Negotiations with Saladin

The Context of Diplomacy

By 1191–1192, the Third Crusade had achieved some military success, notably the capture of Acre (1191) and Richard I’s victory at Arsuf (1191). However, Jerusalem remained under Saladin’s control. Both sides recognised the limitations of prolonged war:

Richard’s resources and manpower were dwindling.
Saladin faced mounting pressure to defend vast territories and maintain unity among his emirs.
This stalemate encouraged diplomacy.

Key Stages of Negotiations

Negotiations occurred intermittently throughout 1191–1192. Several proposals were discussed:

Marriage alliances: Richard suggested that his sister Joan could marry Saladin’s brother, al-Adil, with Jerusalem as a dowry. While novel, the plan collapsed due to religious objections on both sides.
Shared rule of Jerusalem: Some discussions revolved around the idea of joint Christian–Muslim authority in the city, though neither side could compromise on sovereignty over such a sacred place.
Safe access for pilgrims: The most practical point of agreement was ensuring Christian pilgrimage rights to the Holy Sepulchre and other sacred sites.

The Treaty of Jaffa (1192)

The eventual agreement, often called the Treaty of Jaffa, was signed in September 1192. Its main terms were:

The coastal strip from Tyre to Jaffa remained under Crusader control, securing vital ports for Western access to the Levant.

A political map of the Levant during the Third Crusade, highlighting Crusader coastal holdings and Ayyubid territories. It illustrates the settlement by which Jerusalem stayed under Muslim rule while coastal cities from Tyre to Jaffa remained in Crusader hands. Source

Jerusalem remained in Muslim hands, but unarmed Christian pilgrims were granted free access to holy sites.
A three-year truce was established, reducing immediate hostilities and allowing both sides to consolidate.

Treaty of Jaffa (1192): A truce between Richard I and Saladin that secured Crusader control of coastal cities, left Jerusalem under Muslim control, and guaranteed Christian pilgrimage rights.

The treaty represented a compromise: Richard abandoned hopes of capturing Jerusalem, while Saladin conceded pilgrimage rights and coastal footholds.

Consequences for the West

Religious and Cultural Impact

The failure to recapture Jerusalem left many in Western Europe dissatisfied, as the crusade had not met its central spiritual aim.
However, Richard’s successes in battle and diplomacy elevated his reputation, particularly as a model of chivalric kingship.
The idea of crusading remained strong, and planning for future campaigns persisted, fuelling the continuity of the crusading movement.

Political Consequences

Richard’s long absence and costs strained English finances, leading to increased taxation and discontent at home.
Rivalries among Western leaders, notably between Richard and Philip II of France, deepened, influencing future European conflicts.
Despite Jerusalem’s loss, the treaty preserved a Christian presence in the Levant, ensuring continued Western engagement.

Consequences for Outremer

Strategic Position

The Crusader States gained secure access to the coast, vital for supplies and reinforcements from the West.
Although Jerusalem was lost, the treaty ensured their survival as political entities.
The treaty stabilised frontiers, giving the Crusader States breathing space after years of warfare.

Internal Divisions

Disappointment over the failure to capture Jerusalem exacerbated tensions among leaders in Outremer.
Some saw Richard’s compromise as pragmatic, while others considered it a betrayal of crusading ideals.
The treaty underscored the dependency of the Crusader States on Western intervention.

Consequences for the Islamic World

Saladin’s Prestige

Saladin secured Jerusalem, reinforcing his status as the defender of Islam and fulfilling the ideal of jihad.
His ability to resist Europe’s most formidable monarchs enhanced his legitimacy among Muslims, despite challenges in maintaining unity.

Limits of Victory

While victorious, Saladin was forced to compromise. Allowing Christian access to Jerusalem highlighted the practical limitations of his authority.
The truce revealed ongoing vulnerabilities in the Islamic coalition, as internal divisions among emirs persisted.

Long-Term Impact

The Treaty of Jaffa allowed Saladin to stabilise his rule, but his death in 1193 reopened the question of leadership in the Islamic Near East.
The idea of jihad against Crusaders remained central to Islamic political and religious identity.

Wider Historical Significance

Continuation of the Crusading Movement

The Treaty of Jaffa symbolised both failure and survival:

For the West, it maintained an enduring foothold in the Levant.
For Islam, it preserved control of Jerusalem, a symbolic and practical triumph.

Shaping Christian–Muslim Relations

The recognition of mutual rights — pilgrimage for Christians, sovereignty for Muslims — represented a rare moment of compromise.
Yet, the unresolved status of Jerusalem ensured that future conflict was inevitable.

Legacy of Richard and Saladin

Richard I’s reputation as a warrior-king and Saladin’s as a just and pious ruler entered legend, influencing later medieval literature and perceptions of the Crusades.
Their negotiations demonstrated the balance of pragmatism and ideology in medieval diplomacy.

FAQ

Richard recognised that even if Jerusalem was captured, it would be extremely difficult to hold without control of surrounding territory and supply lines.

Winter weather, stretched resources, and the threat of Saladin’s counter-attack persuaded him that such a campaign would be unsustainable.

His decision reflected pragmatism: focusing on coastal strongholds ensured a longer-term Christian presence in the region.

By 1192, Saladin was suffering from exhaustion and ill health due to years of continuous campaigning.

His weakened condition made him more open to diplomacy, as he lacked the strength to commit to another major military confrontation.

This encouraged his advisors to accept a truce that maintained Jerusalem but reduced immediate pressure from Crusader advances.

Both faiths attached deep spiritual value to Jerusalem and its holy sites.

Muslims emphasised their role as protectors of Islam’s third-holiest city.
Christians prioritised access to the Holy Sepulchre and surrounding sacred locations.

The treaty reflected this dual importance: Saladin kept political control, while Christians gained safe access for unarmed pilgrims, bridging a religious but not territorial compromise.

No, opinion was divided.

Some leaders saw the treaty as a pragmatic way to protect Crusader states and ensure pilgrimage rights.
Others, particularly religious zealots and militant knights, believed anything short of Jerusalem’s capture was a betrayal.

These divisions weakened unity in Outremer and influenced later calls for renewed crusading efforts.

The treaty provided a precedent for compromise, showing that negotiation could secure Christian rights without full military victory.

However, the inability to regain Jerusalem kept the crusading ideal alive.

Future crusades, including the Fourth, were motivated partly by dissatisfaction with Richard’s settlement and a desire to finish what the Third had left incomplete.

Practice Questions

Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year was the Treaty of Jaffa agreed between Richard I and Saladin?

Mark Scheme:

1 mark for identifying the treaty as the Treaty of Jaffa.
1 mark for stating the correct year: 1192.
(Maximum 2 marks)

Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two consequences of the Treaty of Jaffa (1192) for either the West or Outremer.