OCR Specification focus:
‘Cortes and the Conquest of Mexico (1518–1541); Pizarro and the Conquest of Peru (1524–1541).’
The conquests of Mexico and Peru transformed Spain’s global position, reshaping political, economic, and cultural structures in the Americas while fuelling immense wealth and challenges for the monarchy.
Background to Spanish Expansion
The early 16th century marked a decisive phase of overseas expansion for Spain. Driven by imperial ambition, Christian missionary zeal, and the pursuit of wealth, Spanish expeditions to the Americas intensified following Columbus’s discoveries. Both Hernán Cortés in Mexico and Francisco Pizarro in Peru led conquests that dramatically expanded Spain’s influence, creating the foundation for the largest overseas empire in Europe.
Key Motivations
Wealth: Access to gold, silver, and new trade networks.
Religion: The spread of Christianity and justification of conquest under papal authority.
Glory and status: Opportunities for lower-ranking nobles to gain land and titles.
Strategic advantage: Establishment of dominance in competition with Portugal and other European powers.
Hernán Cortés and the Conquest of Mexico
Initial Expedition
In 1519, Hernán Cortés embarked from Cuba with around 600 men, 16 horses, and a small number of cannon. Although his mission was initially sanctioned by the governor of Cuba, Cortés exceeded his instructions and pursued independent conquest.
March into the Interior
Cortés secured crucial alliances with indigenous peoples hostile to the Aztec Empire, notably the Tlaxcalans.
Route map of Hernán Cortés (1519–1521) from the coast to Tenochtitlán, highlighting key waypoints and allied regions such as Tlaxcala. The map helps visualise the inland march and the logistical path that made the siege possible. Source
Use of interpreters such as La Malinche (Doña Marina) facilitated negotiations and manipulation of native rivalries.
Superior weaponry and the psychological shock of horses and firearms strengthened Spanish advantage.
Fall of Tenochtitlán
In 1519, Cortés entered Tenochtitlán, the Aztec capital, welcomed by Emperor Montezuma II.
Following initial coexistence, tensions escalated. Montezuma was taken hostage, and after his death, the Spanish were expelled in the “Noche Triste” (Night of Sorrows, June 1520).
Cortés regrouped, and in 1521 besieged Tenochtitlán, leading to its fall after months of starvation, disease (especially smallpox), and attrition.
Smallpox: A deadly infectious disease brought by Europeans to the Americas, devastating indigenous populations with no immunity.
The destruction of Tenochtitlán ended the Aztec Empire, and Mexico became the Viceroyalty of New Spain by 1535.
Francisco Pizarro and the Conquest of Peru
Early Attempts
Francisco Pizarro had accompanied earlier expeditions to the Americas. By the 1520s, rumours of a wealthy civilisation in South America circulated. Pizarro led expeditions southwards between 1524 and 1528, eventually receiving royal approval for conquest.
Capture of Atahualpa
In 1532, Pizarro confronted the Inca Empire, then weakened by internal conflict following a civil war between brothers Atahualpa and Huáscar.
Historical route map of Francisco Pizarro (1531–1533) tracing movement from Panama to Cajamarca and Cuzco. It situates major locations referenced in the conquest narrative and clarifies the chronology of the inland march. The base map includes broader Andean topography and coastal toponyms that go beyond the OCR focus but help with orientation. Source
At Cajamarca, with fewer than 200 men, Pizarro ambushed Atahualpa’s forces.
Juan Lepiani’s “La captura de Atahualpa” depicts Spanish cavalry charging into the plaza of Cajamarca as Atahualpa is seized on his litter. The image captures the shock tactics and close-quarters chaos that enabled a small Spanish force to neutralise Inca leadership. As a work of art, it dramatises events and includes compositional choices not strictly documentary in nature. Source
Despite being vastly outnumbered, the Spaniards used horses, firearms, and surprise tactics to capture Atahualpa.
Atahualpa offered a vast ransom of gold and silver, filling a room once with gold and twice with silver, but was executed in 1533 despite paying.
Fall of Cuzco and Lima
After Atahualpa’s death, Pizarro advanced on Cuzco, the Inca capital, capturing it in 1533.
In 1535, he founded Lima, which became the centre of Spanish administration in Peru.
Sporadic resistance continued until the 1570s, but Inca power was permanently broken.
Similarities Between the Conquests
Both Cortés and Pizarro exploited internal divisions within native societies.
Superior military technology and horses created psychological and tactical advantages.
Disease significantly weakened native resistance, often killing leaders and warriors.
Conquests were framed as both political and religious missions, justifying domination through Christianity.
Consequences of the Conquests
For Spain
Enormous influx of precious metals, particularly from Peruvian silver mines such as Potosí, transformed Spain’s economy and allowed funding of European wars.
Expansion of Spanish colonial administration, with viceroyalties in Mexico and Peru.
Increased status of Spain as a dominant global power.
For the Americas
Collapse of indigenous political systems and mass depopulation due to war, forced labour, and disease.
The encomienda system granted Spanish settlers rights over native labour, reinforcing exploitation.
Encomienda: A Spanish colonial system granting conquerors rights to the labour and tribute of indigenous people in return for supposed protection and Christian instruction.
Establishment of Catholicism as the dominant religion, with suppression of native beliefs.
Creation of a new social order blending Spanish, indigenous, and African elements.
Legacy
The conquests of Mexico and Peru between 1518 and 1541 marked a decisive turning point in Spanish imperial history. They provided immense wealth and established enduring Spanish authority in the Americas. The model of conquest—small European forces leveraging alliances, technology, and disease—set a pattern for further imperial expansion.
FAQ
La Malinche acted as a translator and cultural mediator for Cortés, speaking both Nahuatl and Maya.
She provided vital intelligence on Aztec politics, rivalries, and military strategies. Her presence allowed the Spanish to negotiate alliances and manipulate indigenous tensions, especially with the Tlaxcalans.
While essential to the Spanish success, her role has been controversial—some view her as a traitor, others as a survivor and key historical figure.
In Mexico, the lakeside position of Tenochtitlán required Cortés to construct brigantines to blockade and besiege the city effectively.
In Peru, the mountainous Andes and dispersed Inca road network influenced Spanish tactics.
The Inca Empire’s vastness meant slower communication and difficulties in co-ordination.
The Spanish exploited these challenges to divide and weaken resistance.
Geography often worked against the native empires but benefited small, mobile Spanish forces.
Atahualpa’s ransom, one room of gold and two of silver, was one of the largest in history.
Its significance lies in:
Demonstrating the immense wealth of the Inca Empire.
Funding further Spanish expansion and enriching participants.
Symbolising Spanish betrayal, since Atahualpa was executed despite payment, undermining trust in any future native negotiations.
It reinforced the Spanish reputation for ruthlessness and opportunism.
Horses were unknown in the Americas before European arrival.
They transformed Spanish tactics:
Cavalry charges caused panic among unprepared indigenous infantry.
Speed and manoeuvrability allowed small forces to control larger groups.
Psychological shock was immense, as many natives initially believed horses and riders were a single creature.
While limited in number, horses became a decisive symbol of Spanish military superiority.
Smallpox struck Mexico in 1520, killing thousands, including Cuitláhuac, Montezuma’s successor. This destabilised Aztec leadership during Cortés’s siege.
In Peru, smallpox arrived ahead of the Spanish, killing Emperor Huayna Capac and his heir. This triggered the civil war between Atahualpa and Huáscar.
Thus, the disease directly weakened both empires’ political and military structures, giving the Spanish a critical advantage before major battles began.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Hernán Cortés begin his expedition into Mexico, and which indigenous group became one of his most important allies?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying the year 1519.
1 mark for correctly identifying the Tlaxcalans as key allies.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why Francisco Pizarro was able to defeat the Inca Empire despite having far fewer soldiers.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each explained reason, with clarity and development required for maximum marks.
Indicative content:
Internal division: Civil war between Atahualpa and Huáscar weakened the Inca Empire (1 mark). Further developed with mention of instability or reduced unity (additional 1–2 marks).
Military technology and tactics: Horses, steel weapons, and firearms gave Spaniards an advantage, and ambush at Cajamarca demonstrates effective tactics (1 mark). Further developed with explanation of psychological shock or Atahualpa’s capture (additional 1–2 marks).
Disease: Epidemics such as smallpox had already weakened the Inca population before major battles (creditworthy if included, but only two reasons required).
Level of response guidance:
1–2 marks: Simple statements without development (e.g., “Pizarro had better weapons”).
3–4 marks: Some explanation with limited detail or development of reasons.
5–6 marks: Clear explanation of two distinct reasons, with supporting detail showing understanding of the context.
