OCR Specification focus:
‘Reasons for Russian successes and consequences of territorial gains; Peter’s campaign in Persia and capture of Derbent and Baku’
Russia’s victories under Peter the Great reshaped European power politics, expanded its territory, and consolidated its imperial strength. These developments were rooted in military reform, diplomacy, and strategic determination.
Reasons for Russian Successes
Military Reform and Modernisation
Peter the Great transformed the Russian military into a more disciplined and professional force. His reforms included:
Introduction of conscription in 1705, creating a standing army of peasants serving for life.
Adoption of Western military tactics and drill systems learned from European advisers.
Construction of the Russian navy, first seen at Azov and later instrumental in campaigns in the Baltic.
Standing Army: A permanent, professional military force maintained even in peacetime, funded and organised by the state.
These changes allowed Russia to confront Sweden and the Ottoman Empire with increasing competence.
Strategic Leadership and Peter’s Drive
Peter himself played a decisive role in motivating and directing his forces:
He was personally involved in military planning and took part in campaigns.
His determination to secure a “Window on the West” in the Baltic created long-term focus and consistency.
The defeat at Narva in 1700 was turned into a learning opportunity, strengthening resolve and reforms.
Economic and Administrative Support
Russian successes were also due to improved state capacity:
The introduction of the poll tax (1718) provided reliable revenue.
Expansion of state-directed industry, especially ironworks and armaments, ensured supply of weapons.
Establishment of the Senate and colleges allowed more efficient coordination of resources and administration.
Weakness of Opponents
Russian success must also be seen in relation to the decline of rivals:
Sweden under Charles XII, though militarily formidable, became overstretched after campaigns in Poland and against Saxony.
The Ottoman Empire was preoccupied with internal difficulties and wars elsewhere, limiting its capacity against Russia.
Poland-Lithuania, once a regional power, was weakened by internal disorder and foreign interference.
Consequences of Territorial Gains
The Treaty of Nystadt (1721)
After victory in the Great Northern War, Russia secured the Treaty of Nystadt, which granted:
Ingria, Estonia, Livonia, and part of Karelia to Russia.
Permanent access to the Baltic Sea, enabling St Petersburg to develop as the new capital.
These acquisitions shifted the balance of power, making Russia a dominant Baltic power.
Window on the West: Peter’s policy of securing direct access to the Baltic Sea, facilitating trade, diplomacy, and Western cultural influence.
Expansion of Prestige and Status
Russia emerged recognised as a European great power, altering the diplomatic order of Europe.
The victory over Sweden, a formerly dominant power, symbolised the rise of Russia in international affairs.
Peter adopted the title Emperor (Imperator) in 1721, marking the elevation of Russia to an empire.
Strategic and Economic Advantages
Control of Baltic ports improved trade, especially in timber, hemp, and naval supplies.
St Petersburg became a hub of administration, commerce, and cultural westernisation.
Russia now had secure frontiers in the west, enabling further expansion south and east.
Peter’s Campaign in Persia
Context and Motives
Peter turned attention to the Caspian region after securing Baltic successes. His motives included:
Desire to gain access to Persian and Central Asian trade routes.
Strategic aim to strengthen Russia’s position against the Ottoman Empire and Persia.
Demonstration of Russia’s expanding military capacity beyond Europe.
The Campaign of 1722–1723
Peter launched an expedition along the western coast of the Caspian Sea.
Russian forces captured the cities of Derbent and Baku, securing parts of the Caucasus.
An 1823 campaign map of Peter I’s 1722–23 Persian operations, depicting the Caspian coastline with Derbent and Baku marked. Source
Consequences of the Persian Campaign
Though short-lived, the campaign displayed Russia’s imperial ambition beyond Europe.
It marked the beginning of Russia’s long-term involvement in the Caucasus, which would continue in later centuries.
Diplomatically, it alarmed both Persia and the Ottoman Empire, who feared Russian encroachment in the region.
Long-Term Consequences of Russian Expansion
Geopolitical Reorientation
Russia was now integrated into European power politics, with alliances, treaties, and wars shaping continental diplomacy.
St Petersburg symbolised this reorientation, deliberately built as a Western-facing capital.
Impact on Russian Society
The victories reinforced Peter’s authority and justified his harsh reforms.
Successes encouraged further westernisation policies, though they deepened tensions with conservative groups such as the Old Believers.
Foundation of an Empire
By the 1720s, Russia had moved decisively from being a relatively isolated Muscovite state to a multi-continental empire, holding influence in the Baltic, the Caucasus, and beyond.
FAQ
The Battle of Poltava was decisive in the Great Northern War. After Russia’s earlier defeat at Narva, Poltava marked the turning point.
Charles XII’s Swedish army was crushed, ending Sweden’s dominance in the Baltic.
It boosted Russian morale and demonstrated the effectiveness of Peter’s reformed army.
This victory paved the way for Russia to negotiate from a position of strength, eventually leading to the Treaty of Nystadt.
St Petersburg was deliberately placed on territory taken from Sweden to symbolise Russia’s new European orientation.
Its location provided direct access to the Baltic Sea for trade and naval power.
It projected Russia’s presence into European affairs.
The city’s construction, often at huge human cost, became a physical expression of Russia’s transformed geopolitical identity.
Russia’s victories alarmed and impressed neighbouring states.
Britain and the Dutch Republic welcomed Russia’s rise as it weakened Sweden, a rival in Baltic trade.
Austria viewed Russia as a potential ally against the Ottoman Empire.
France and Prussia became wary of Russia’s growing strength, recognising it as a long-term strategic player in European balance politics.
These regions provided resources and strategic assets vital for Russia’s economy.
Ports at Riga and Reval (Tallinn) allowed Russia to expand overseas trade.
Timber, hemp, and tar supported shipbuilding and naval expansion.
Agricultural land increased the food base to supply Russia’s army and cities.
Although Derbent and Baku were captured, sustaining control proved difficult.
The campaign overstretched Russian resources after years of war with Sweden.
Persian instability initially enabled Russian success, but it also created unpredictable conditions.
After Peter’s death in 1725, focus shifted back to consolidating gains in Europe, and later rulers abandoned some Caspian territories.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two territories that Russia gained from Sweden in the Treaty of Nystadt (1721).
Mark Scheme
1 mark for each correct territory, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Acceptable answers: Ingria, Estonia, Livonia, part of Karelia.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why Peter the Great’s campaign in Persia (1722–1723) was significant for Russia.
Mark Scheme
Up to 2 marks for describing the campaign itself (e.g., capture of Derbent and Baku, expansion into the Caucasus).
Up to 2 marks for explaining the strategic or economic motives (e.g., access to trade routes, pressure on Ottoman and Persian rivals).
Up to 2 marks for identifying consequences (e.g., demonstrated Russia’s imperial ambition beyond Europe, beginnings of Russian involvement in the Caucasus, alarm to Persia and the Ottoman Empire).
Maximum 6 marks.
Level of response guidance:
1–2 marks: simple or general description of events with limited explanation.
3–4 marks: clear explanation of significance with some supporting detail.
5–6 marks: well-developed explanation covering campaign, motives, and consequences with accurate supporting detail.
