OCR Specification focus:
‘Extent of westernisation by 1725; problems of Russia in the reigns of Catherine I and Peter II, Anne and Ivan IV 1725–1741, the ‘German period’’
Russia in the early eighteenth century stood at a crossroads, balancing Peter the Great’s reforms against deep-seated traditions. After 1725, rulers faced challenges of legitimacy, administration, and identity.
The Extent of Westernisation by 1725
Peter the Great’s reforms had profoundly altered Russian state and society, though the depth of westernisation was uneven across classes and regions.
Political and Administrative Change
Peter strengthened the autocracy by subordinating the boyar elite through the Table of Ranks (1722), tying advancement to state service rather than hereditary privilege.
The establishment of the Senate and colleges created a more structured bureaucratic framework, replacing ad hoc boyar councils.
Provincial reforms, dividing Russia into new provinces and districts, attempted to impose greater central control.
Social and Cultural Influence
Peter compelled the nobility to adopt Western dress and shave their traditional beards.
The introduction of the Julian calendar (1700) and reformed alphabet (1708–1710) symbolised a deliberate break from Muscovite custom.
St Petersburg, built from 1703, stood as a tangible expression of Europeanised urban planning, architecture, and Russia’s “window to the West”.
Military and Economic Transformation
The creation of a modern navy and reorganisation of the army along Western lines established Russia as a major European power.
Economic initiatives included state encouragement of ironworks, textiles, and armaments production, often driven by forced labour and serfdom.
Trade routes were reoriented towards the Baltic Sea, diminishing traditional reliance on Arkhangelsk.
Map showing territorial changes at the end of the Great Northern War (1721), with Russian gains in the Baltic highlighted. It clarifies why Baltic access became central to Russia’s western orientation. Source
Limits of Westernisation
Despite sweeping reforms, westernisation was partial:
Peasants, the overwhelming majority of the population, remained untouched by Western culture and trapped in expanding serfdom.
Western manners among the nobility were superficial, often enforced rather than embraced.
Russian Orthodoxy remained a powerful cultural force, resistant to Peter’s secularising tendencies.
Westernisation: The process by which Peter the Great sought to align Russian political, military, economic, and cultural life with contemporary Western European models.
Russia After Peter: The Reigns of Catherine I and Peter II
Following Peter’s death in 1725, Russia entered a period of uncertainty, with rulers lacking his authority and vision.
Catherine I (1725–1727)
Catherine, Peter’s widow, had little political experience. Her rule relied heavily on Prince Menshikov, her chief adviser.
The continuation of some reforms occurred, but without Peter’s drive, much of the administration stagnated.
Catherine’s court remained European in style, but underlying structures showed signs of fragility.
Peter II (1727–1730)
Grandson of Peter the Great, Peter II came to the throne aged only 11.
Power shifted back towards the old boyar aristocracy, reversing some of Peter’s intent to weaken them.
His reign was dominated by aristocratic intrigue, with the Golitsyn and Dolgorukii families exerting influence.
Westernisation slowed dramatically, as the court even moved back to Moscow, symbolising a partial rejection of St Petersburg’s Western orientation.
The Reign of Anna and the ‘German Period’
Empress Anna (1730–1740)
Niece of Peter the Great, Anna initially accepted “conditions” limiting her power, but soon rejected them, reaffirming autocratic rule.
Anna relied heavily on Baltic German advisers, such as Ernst Johann Biron, leading Russians to dub her reign the ‘German period’.
Many nobles resented the dominance of foreigners in government, viewing it as undermining Russian interests.
Anna’s court was highly Europeanised, with elaborate ceremonies, architecture, and cultural displays inspired by the West.
Social and Political Consequences
The nobility benefited from privileges, including exemption from compulsory state service after 1736, reinforcing class stratification.
The reliance on foreign expertise fuelled resentment but also continued Russia’s integration into European diplomatic and military affairs.
Peasants’ conditions worsened, with serfdom deepening and estate owners exerting greater control.
The Short Reign of Ivan VI (1740–1741)
Ivan VI, an infant ruler, was placed on the throne under the regency of his mother, Anna Leopoldovna, who also relied on German advisers.
His reign deepened perceptions of the ‘German dominance’ in Russian politics.
Opposition culminated in Elizabeth Petrovna’s coup of 1741, restoring the direct Romanov line and promising a revival of Peter’s legacy.
Problems of Russia 1725–1741
The post-Petrine period exposed significant weaknesses:
Leadership Instability: Successors lacked Peter’s charisma and drive, resulting in factionalism and court intrigue.
Foreign Influence: The reliance on Germans in key roles alienated the Russian elite, producing tensions between “Westernisers” and “traditionalists”.
Social Division: Westernisation remained confined to elites; peasants bore the burdens of taxation, conscription, and serfdom, widening class divides.
Economic Strains: State-driven industry required constant coercion; agriculture, the backbone of the economy, lagged behind, sustaining backwardness.
Religious Resistance: The Orthodox Church remained a bastion of conservatism, resisting secularising and Westernising pressures.
The Question of Westernisation’s Depth
By 1741, Russia was undeniably a European great power, militarily and diplomatically integrated into continental affairs. Yet westernisation was uneven, fragile, and contested, reflecting both the achievements and the limitations of Peter’s reforms and the problems of his successors.
FAQ
Elizabeth’s coup removed the regency of Anna Leopoldovna and the infant Ivan VI, both associated with German advisers. This ended the dominance of figures like Biron.
By presenting herself as Peter the Great’s daughter, Elizabeth restored legitimacy to the Romanov line and reassured nobles wary of foreign influence. The coup symbolised a deliberate return to Russian leadership, though Western influences remained embedded.
German courtiers such as Biron were perceived as outsiders who prioritised their own interests and monopolised power.
This alienated sections of the Russian nobility, who felt excluded from decision-making.
Resentment was heightened by heavy taxation and unpopular policies seen as “foreign imposed.”
The dominance of foreigners challenged traditional expectations of a Russian-led autocracy, fuelling opposition movements.
Moscow represented the old Muscovite traditions, with deep connections to Orthodoxy and boyar influence.
By shifting the court away from St Petersburg, Peter II distanced himself from his grandfather’s Europeanised capital. This symbolically weakened western reforms and reinstated traditional centres of power, suggesting a partial retreat from Peter’s legacy.
Westernisation was overwhelmingly elite-focused. Peasants remained subject to traditional rural life, orthodoxy, and expanding obligations under serfdom.
Agricultural methods remained largely unchanged, lacking modernisation.
Heavy taxation and conscription for military service deepened hardship.
Cultural reforms such as dress codes or the alphabet reform had no practical relevance to rural communities
Despite Peter the Great’s reforms, the economy remained fragile after 1725.
State industries required subsidies and coercion, making them unsustainable without strong central leadership.
Agriculture, the backbone of the economy, remained stagnant, preventing wider prosperity.
Trade imbalances persisted, as Russia exported raw materials but relied on imports for luxury goods.
These weaknesses contributed to Russia’s dependence on strong rulers to maintain reform momentum.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify one way in which Peter the Great encouraged cultural westernisation among the Russian nobility.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying a measure.
1 additional mark for a clear detail about that measure.
Examples:Shaving of beards (1 mark) + the imposition of a beard tax token as proof of payment (1 mark).
Wearing Western dress (1 mark) + requirement for nobles to appear at court in European clothing (1 mark).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two problems faced by Russia in the period 1725–1741 following the death of Peter the Great.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 3 marks for each valid problem explained, to a maximum of 6 marks.
1 mark for identification of a relevant problem.
1 mark for providing an accurate supporting detail.
1 mark for explaining why this problem mattered or what its effect was.
Examples:
Leadership instability (1 mark) + Catherine I and Peter II lacked authority and experience (1 mark) + this led to reliance on advisers and boyar dominance, weakening reform momentum (1 mark).
Foreign influence (1 mark) + reliance on German advisers such as Biron under Empress Anna (1 mark) + this created resentment among Russian nobles and undermined legitimacy of government (1 mark).
Social division (1 mark) + peasants burdened with deeper serfdom and taxation (1 mark) + this limited the spread of westernisation and entrenched inequality (1 mark).
