OCR Specification focus:
‘the development of administration of the Empire; cultural and artistic developments’
The Mughal Empire under Akbar witnessed vast consolidation through administrative innovations and vibrant cultural and artistic growth, creating enduring legacies in governance and aesthetics.
Administrative Development under Akbar
Centralisation of Power
Akbar transformed the Mughal Empire from a loosely held conquest state into a centralised empire. His governance was based on efficiency, order, and integration, balancing imperial authority with regional cooperation.
The emperor was regarded as the supreme head of both state and religion, embodying divine kingship.
A formal court structure reinforced Akbar’s prestige and centrality.
Local administration was systematically tied to imperial authority through bureaucratic reforms.
Mansabdari System
One of Akbar’s most significant reforms was the Mansabdari system, which regulated the ranks, responsibilities, and pay of officials.
Mansabdari System: A hierarchical administrative system that classified Mughal officials into ranks (mansabs), determining their military obligations, salary, and status.
Ranks were expressed in terms of zat (personal status) and sawar (number of cavalry to maintain).
Nobles, both Mughal and Rajput, were incorporated, creating loyalty across diverse elites.
Regular assessments ensured accountability and curbed corruption.
This system allowed Akbar to combine military service with civil administration, ensuring a professional and reliable bureaucracy.
Revenue Reforms
The stability of the empire depended heavily on land revenue, which Akbar reformed with enduring consequences.
Raja Todar Mal, Akbar’s finance minister, standardised revenue collection.
Land was surveyed and assessed using a uniform system based on average produce and prices over ten years.
Payments were generally demanded in cash, stimulating monetisation of the economy.
Revenue divisions—subahs, sarkars, parganas, and villages—created clear administrative hierarchies.
These reforms reduced arbitrary taxation and provided a more predictable revenue stream, which strengthened imperial finances.
Provincial Administration
Akbar divided the empire into 15 subahs (provinces), each governed by a subahdar (governor).
Subahs were subdivided into sarkars and then into parganas.
Officials, including amils (revenue officers) and qanungos (record-keepers), provided local oversight.
Strong checks and balances ensured that governors could not become overly autonomous.
This layered system allowed the Mughals to manage a vast and diverse empire efficiently.
Cultural Developments
Court Culture
Akbar’s court became a cosmopolitan centre of culture, blending Persian, Indian, and Central Asian traditions.
Akbar encouraged rational debate through the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) at Fatehpur Sikri, inviting scholars of different faiths.
Miniature from the Akbarnama (c. 1600–1605) showing Akbar in theological debate at the Ibadat Khana. It illustrates imperial patronage of interfaith dialogue and cosmopolitan court culture. Source
The emperor’s court patronised Persian literature, translations of Hindu epics, and histories such as the Akbarnama by Abu’l Fazl.
This intellectual openness enhanced imperial prestige and promoted a culture of inclusivity.
Religious Inclusivity and Cultural Syncretism
Akbar’s cultural policies reflected his desire to unify a diverse empire.
He abolished the jizya tax on non-Muslims and promoted Sulh-i-Kul (universal peace), a principle of tolerance.
Hindu texts such as the Mahabharata and Ramayana were translated into Persian.
Akbar initiated discussions on creating a syncretic religion, the Din-i-Ilahi, though it had limited success.
This cultural inclusivity strengthened ties with the Rajput kingdoms and other non-Muslim groups.
Artistic Developments
Mughal Architecture
Akbar’s reign was marked by monumental building projects that symbolised Mughal power and aesthetics.
Fatehpur Sikri, Akbar’s new capital, displayed a synthesis of Islamic, Persian, and Indian architectural traditions.
A 1917 general plan of Fatehpur Sikri showing palace, mosque, and civic structures. Source
The Buland Darwaza and Panch Mahal exemplified grandeur and innovation.
Akbar’s tomb at Sikandra reflected the fusion of red sandstone with white marble.
These projects symbolised the authority of the emperor while promoting a blended Indo-Islamic style.
Painting and Miniature Art
Akbar nurtured a distinctive Mughal painting tradition.
Mughal Miniature Painting: A style of South Asian painting that developed in the Mughal courts, noted for its fine detail, vivid colour, and blend of Persian and Indian influences.
Persian artists were invited to the Mughal court, who trained Indian artists.
The Akbarnama was illustrated with detailed miniatures depicting battles, ceremonies, and daily life.
Themes expanded to include Indian landscapes, flora, fauna, and portraits, marking a departure from purely Persian styles.
Cultural Legacy
The artistic achievements of Akbar’s reign established the Mughal court as the premier cultural hub of South Asia. His patronage laid the foundations for the more ornate art and architecture of later emperors, including Jahangir and Shah Jahan.
Administrative and Cultural Symbiosis
Akbar’s administrative consolidation provided the resources and stability that supported his cultural and artistic patronage. In turn, cultural projects reinforced loyalty and imperial authority.
Efficient tax collection funded monumental construction and artistic production.
Inclusive policies integrated diverse groups into imperial administration and culture.
The court’s patronage of art, literature, and architecture projected Mughal grandeur across India and beyond.
By intertwining governance and cultural achievements, Akbar created a durable imperial identity that defined the Mughal Empire at its zenith.
FAQ
By directly linking an official’s rank, income, and military obligations to the emperor, the Mansabdari system limited the chance of local governors building autonomous power bases.
Officials were frequently transferred between provinces to prevent the development of personal fiefdoms.
The reliance on imperial assessment and payment created a dependency on Akbar, reducing loyalty to local elites and strengthening central authority.
Persian culture shaped the language of administration, with Persian becoming the official court and bureaucratic language.
It influenced etiquette, ceremonial practices, and literary traditions. Persian poetry, histories, and translations flourished, elevating the Mughal court’s prestige and connecting it to wider Islamic intellectual traditions.
Although Fatehpur Sikri symbolised Akbar’s authority and cultural vision, it faced practical difficulties.
Chronic water shortages limited sustainability.
Its distance from key political and trade centres reduced its administrative effectiveness.
By 1585, the court was relocated to Lahore, though Fatehpur Sikri continued to serve as a symbolic monument to Akbar’s rule.
The Ibadat Khana was built at Fatehpur Sikri in 1575 as a place for religious debate and discussion.
Akbar invited Muslim scholars, Hindu pandits, Jesuit priests, and others to debate theology and philosophy.
His aim was to explore universal principles of faith, encourage religious harmony, and strengthen imperial legitimacy as a ruler above sectarian divisions.
While Persian miniatures emphasised stylised elegance, Akbar’s workshops introduced:
Realistic depictions of landscapes, plants, and animals.
Dynamic battle scenes and portraits reflecting Indian influences.
Collaborative work by teams of artists blending styles.
This created a uniquely Mughal style that combined precision with vivid narrative detail, marking a distinct cultural development.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name one feature of the Mansabdari system introduced by Akbar
Mark Scheme:
Award 1 mark for identifying one correct feature.
Possible answers include:
Officials were ranked according to zat (personal status) (1 mark)
Officials had to maintain a certain number of cavalry, called sawar (1 mark)
Rank determined both status and salary (1 mark)
Nobles were integrated into both military and civil roles (1 mark)
Maximum of 2 marks can be awarded for any two correct features.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how Akbar’s architectural projects reflected the nature of his rule.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic descriptive knowledge.
Simple statements with limited detail, e.g. “Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri” or “He built large forts.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation of links between architecture and imperial rule.
Answers may refer to grandeur showing power, or blending of styles showing inclusivity, e.g. “Fatehpur Sikri combined Indian and Islamic styles, showing Akbar’s inclusive policies.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear, developed explanation with specific examples.
Must explicitly link projects to Akbar’s authority and cultural policies.
Examples:
The Buland Darwaza symbolised victory and imperial might.
The fusion of Persian and Indian styles at Fatehpur Sikri reflected Akbar’s policy of religious and cultural inclusivity.
The layout of the capital projected centralised power and order.
For top marks, at least two clear examples must be used and explicitly tied to Akbar’s rule.
