OCR Specification focus:
‘relations with Britain, Spain and France, economic problems, civil disobedience, Shay’s rebellion 1786–1787, 1787 Philadelphia Convention; nature of the 1787 Constitution of the United States.’
The early Republic was marked by fragile diplomacy, economic weakness, and internal unrest, culminating in the Philadelphia Convention of 1787, which sought to redefine America’s constitutional framework.
Relations with Britain, Spain, and France
Britain
Following the Peace of Paris (1783), relations with Britain remained tense.
Britain refused to evacuate several frontier forts in the Northwest Territory, claiming the United States had failed to honour debts owed to British merchants and loyalists.
British trade policies disadvantaged American merchants. The Navigation Acts restricted American shipping, while Britain restricted access to West Indian markets, deepening American economic isolation.
Border disputes in the Great Lakes region and issues over fishing rights created additional friction.
Spain
Spain controlled both the Mississippi River and New Orleans, key to western trade.
Spain denied American settlers free navigation of the Mississippi, threatening the economic prospects of frontier farmers.
The Treaty of San Lorenzo (Pinckney’s Treaty) resolving these disputes would not be signed until 1795, leaving frustration during the 1780s.
Spanish alliances with Native American groups, particularly in the southwest, challenged U.S. expansionist ambitions.
France
Though France had been a crucial wartime ally, relations cooled.
France expected repayment of wartime loans, yet the struggling United States government was unable to fulfil obligations.
American merchants sought new trading opportunities, but French protectionism hindered mutual economic benefits.
The absence of a strong central authority made sustained diplomatic ties difficult, weakening French confidence in the new republic.
Economic Problems in the 1780s
The early Republic faced severe economic dislocation after independence:
War debts: The Confederation government owed money to both domestic creditors and foreign allies, yet lacked reliable taxation power.
Inflation and currency instability: State governments issued paper money, causing depreciation and eroding trust in the economy.
Trade imbalance: Britain restricted U.S. exports while flooding American markets with goods, worsening specie shortages.
Interstate trade barriers: States imposed tariffs on one another’s goods, hampering national economic growth.
Articles of Confederation: The first U.S. constitution (ratified 1781), establishing a weak national government with limited powers, especially in taxation and interstate commerce.
The economic malaise demonstrated the inadequacies of the Articles of Confederation, fuelling calls for reform.
Civil Disobedience and Shay’s Rebellion (1786–1787)
Causes
Farmers in Massachusetts, many of them veterans, faced debt, foreclosure, and high taxation.
Economic depression and lack of federal support intensified hardship, leading to open protest.
Events
Under Daniel Shays, rebels shut down courts to prevent property seizures.
Ezra Stiles’s 1787 manuscript map traces Shaysite and government routes around western Massachusetts, visualising how rebels targeted county courts and how authorities responded. Source
The Massachusetts militia eventually suppressed the uprising, but only after months of tension.
Consequences
The rebellion exposed the weakness of the Confederation government, which lacked both funding and a national army to intervene effectively.
Elites across America feared similar unrest and questioned whether republican liberty could survive without stronger central authority.
The 1787 Philadelphia Convention
Background
Growing dissatisfaction with the Articles of Confederation led to calls for a convention to revise the framework of government.
Initial attempts at reform (e.g., the Annapolis Convention, 1786) proved inadequate, paving the way for a broader constitutional gathering.
The Convention
Held in Philadelphia from May to September 1787, with 55 delegates representing twelve states (Rhode Island abstained).
George Washington presided, while key figures included James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and Benjamin Franklin.
Howard Chandler Christy’s Signing of the Constitution depicts George Washington on the dais, with Benjamin Franklin and Alexander Hamilton prominently shown. Though painted later, it is based on contemporary portraits and research, capturing the Convention’s transformation from revision to the framing of a new constitution. Source
The delegates rapidly moved beyond revision and decided to draft an entirely new constitution.
Key Debates
Representation: The Virginia Plan (population-based) versus the New Jersey Plan (equal state representation) resulted in the Great Compromise, creating a bicameral legislature.
Slavery: The Three-Fifths Compromise allowed slave states to count three-fifths of their enslaved population for representation and taxation purposes.
Federal power: Stronger central authority was balanced with protections for state sovereignty, creating a system of federalism.
Executive power: The office of President was established with significant authority, checked by separation of powers and periodic elections.
The Nature of the 1787 Constitution
The Constitution represented a decisive break from the Articles of Confederation:
Stronger central government: Granted Congress the power to tax, regulate commerce, and raise armies.
Checks and balances: Legislative, executive, and judicial branches were designed to limit abuses of power.
Federalism: Shared sovereignty between states and the national government.
Amendment process: Provided a mechanism for future adaptation.
Supremacy Clause: Established the Constitution as the supreme law of the land.
Federalism: A political system in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units (states).
By institutionalising these principles, the Constitution sought to address the diplomatic, economic, and social crises of the 1780s, laying foundations for a more stable union.
FAQ
British creditors demanded repayment of loans made before the Revolution, but many American states passed laws delaying or obstructing repayment. Britain used this as justification for refusing to withdraw troops from frontier forts.
This deepened mistrust, as Americans saw British actions as a violation of the Peace of Paris, while Britain insisted on legal protection for loyalists and merchants.
The Mississippi acted as the main trade artery for farmers in Kentucky, Tennessee, and the Ohio Valley.
Settlers relied on river access to transport crops to New Orleans.
Spanish restrictions forced them to use costly overland routes, limiting economic growth.
This issue created tension between frontier interests and eastern elites, pressuring national leaders to negotiate.
States often imposed tariffs on goods from neighbours, creating economic fragmentation.
Merchants faced multiple duties when trading across state lines.
Competing currencies caused confusion and undermined trust in commerce.
The lack of a unified trade policy meant foreign powers could exploit divisions.
These challenges made many argue that a stronger federal government was essential to regulate trade effectively.
The rebellion reinforced elite fears of “mob rule.” Wealthier Americans interpreted farmers’ demands as an attack on property rights.
At the same time, it highlighted deep class tensions: rural debtors versus urban creditors. While many farmers argued for fairer taxation, elites worried that concessions might destabilise social hierarchy.
This class-based anxiety strongly shaped debates at the Philadelphia Convention.
Several key constitutional provisions addressed crises from the Confederation era:
Taxation powers: Congress gained authority to levy taxes, resolving war-debt issues.
Commerce powers: National control over interstate and foreign trade ended tariff rivalries.
Army and militia powers: Federal authority to raise forces provided security against uprisings and foreign threats.
Executive branch: A strong presidency ensured clearer leadership than under the Articles.
These changes aimed to prevent repeats of diplomatic weakness, economic stagnation, and domestic unrest.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two foreign powers that posed challenges to the United States during the 1780s under the Articles of Confederation
Mark Scheme
1 mark for correctly identifying Britain.
1 mark for correctly identifying Spain or France.
(Maximum 2 marks)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why Shay’s Rebellion (1786–1787) was significant in shaping calls for the Philadelphia Convention of 1787.
Mark Scheme
Award up to 6 marks for a clear explanation that addresses significance:
1 mark for identifying economic hardship faced by farmers as a cause of rebellion.
1 mark for noting the weakness of the Articles of Confederation, which left the federal government unable to respond effectively.
1 mark for explaining that the rebellion revealed dangers of civil unrest and threats to property.
1 mark for describing how elites feared the survival of republican liberty without stronger central authority.
1 mark for linking the rebellion to growing recognition that structural reform was necessary.1 mark for explicitly connecting the rebellion’s impact to the decision to convene the Philadelphia Convention.
(Marks are awarded for valid points up to a maximum of 6; credit should be given for any other relevant and accurate explanation.)
