OCR Specification focus:
‘Mexico; relations with Britain; Napoleon III’s reactions to the Austro-Prussian War, Prussia and Germany 1867–1870; the Franco-Prussian War and the fall of the Empire.’
Introduction
The later years of Napoleon III’s reign were defined by foreign adventures, European power struggles, and strained Anglo-French diplomacy, ultimately destabilising his empire and shaping continental politics.
Napoleon III and the Mexican Adventure
Background and Aims
Napoleon III sought overseas ventures to enhance French prestige. Mexico, with its political instability and debts to European powers, appeared an opportunity. France, Britain, and Spain initially intervened jointly in 1861 to secure repayment, but Napoleon III pursued broader ambitions.
He aimed to establish a Catholic monarchy in Mexico under Maximilian of Habsburg, countering the influence of the United States.
The project was partly motivated by economic hopes of new markets and raw materials.
Napoleon III also wished to strengthen France’s standing as a global power.
Execution and Problems
Initially successful, French forces installed Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico in 1864. However, difficulties soon mounted:
The US government, after its Civil War, reasserted the Monroe Doctrine (opposing European interference in the Americas).
Mexican liberals, led by Benito Juárez, waged persistent guerrilla resistance.
The French army faced high costs and mounting casualties.
Monroe Doctrine: A US foreign policy principle (1823) opposing European intervention in the Western Hemisphere.
These challenges made the venture unsustainable, particularly as France’s attention was required in Europe.
Collapse of the Empire in Mexico
By 1866, under US pressure and facing domestic criticism, Napoleon III withdrew French troops.
Labeled map showing the administered territories of the Second Mexican Empire at Maximilian’s accession in April 1864, plus areas the Empire claimed. It visualises the narrow base of firm control versus ambition, clarifying why the project was fragile. Source
The failure severely damaged Napoleon’s international prestige.
It highlighted the dangers of overextending French ambitions.
Domestically, critics cited Mexico as evidence of reckless imperialism.
Relations with Britain
Early Cooperation
Franco-British relations during Napoleon III’s reign oscillated between cooperation and rivalry. Early in his rule, Britain and France cooperated in the Crimean War and shared concerns over Russia.
Strains in the 1860s
By the 1860s, tensions grew:
Britain disapproved of the Mexican adventure, refusing to support Napoleon after the initial joint intervention.
Anglo-French colonial rivalries emerged, particularly in Africa and the Pacific.
Britain increasingly viewed Napoleon as unpredictable, especially in his European manoeuvring.
Despite these tensions, there were moments of rapprochement, particularly over trade agreements such as the Cobden-Chevalier Treaty (1860), which expanded free trade between the two nations.
Napoleon III and Germany, 1867–1870
The Austro-Prussian War (1866)
Prussia’s defeat of Austria at Königgrätz transformed the balance of power in Europe. Napoleon III misjudged the situation, believing he could extract territorial gains.
He sought compensation, particularly the left bank of the Rhine, but was rebuffed by Bismarck.
France appeared diplomatically isolated, while Prussia consolidated its power in northern Germany.
Period engraved map showing Prussia, the North German Confederation (1867–71), and other customs-union states. It supports the narrative of Prussian-led unification in 1867–70. The image contains rich cartographic detail. Source
Napoleon’s weakness in securing French interests damaged his prestige at home and abroad.
Growing Tensions with Prussia
Between 1867 and 1870, Franco-Prussian rivalry intensified:
France feared the rise of a united Germany under Prussian leadership.
Bismarck skilfully manipulated tensions, ensuring French demands appeared aggressive and unreasonable.
French diplomacy, distracted by the fallout from Mexico, failed to secure strong alliances.
The Franco-Prussian War and the Fall of the Empire
Road to War
The immediate cause of conflict was the Hohenzollern candidacy for the Spanish throne in 1870. France opposed the move, fearing encirclement.
The Ems Dispatch, edited by Bismarck, inflamed French public opinion.
Napoleon III, pressured by nationalist fervour and domestic unrest, declared war in July 1870.
Course of the War
The French army was ill-prepared compared to Prussia’s modernised forces. Key developments:
French defeats at Wissembourg, Spicheren, and Mars-la-Tour undermined morale.
At Sedan (September 1870), Napoleon III himself was captured.
The collapse of the Second Empire followed swiftly, with the proclamation of the Third Republic in Paris.
Third Republic: The republican government of France established in 1870 after the fall of Napoleon III, lasting until 1940.
Consequences
The fall of the Empire was both a result of long-term miscalculations and immediate military disaster:
Mexico had weakened France diplomatically and financially.
Britain remained aloof, unwilling to support French ambitions.
Prussia’s rise exposed the fragility of French power.
Key Themes and Implications
Mexico: A costly imperial folly that discredited Napoleon III.
Britain: Relations alternated between cooperation and suspicion, but Britain distanced itself from Napoleon’s most reckless ventures.
Germany: Napoleon’s failure to secure concessions in 1866 and missteps in 1870 led to the end of his regime.
FAQ
Napoleon III assumed that Mexico’s political instability would make a European-backed monarchy attractive. He also miscalculated the likelihood of US intervention, expecting the American Civil War to keep the United States too distracted to resist.
He further believed that placing a Habsburg on the throne would gain legitimacy from the Catholic Church and European conservatives. These assumptions proved unrealistic once US foreign policy reasserted itself.
Britain initially joined France and Spain in 1861 to secure repayment of debts but quickly withdrew when Napoleon’s ambitions became clear.
Britain was more concerned with maintaining financial stability than with creating a new monarchy. London avoided entanglement in continental-style imperial schemes, fearing both costs and unnecessary rivalry with the United States.
Juárez, a liberal nationalist leader, symbolised Mexican resistance to foreign intervention. He organised guerrilla warfare, making it costly for French troops to secure control outside key cities.
His persistence meant Maximilian’s regime never gained legitimacy among most Mexicans. Juárez’s eventual return to power reinforced Mexican independence and discredited French imperialism.
French conservatives accused him of overreaching, while liberals criticised the waste of resources and lives. Both sides used the debacle as evidence of poor judgement.
The economic burden, coupled with the visible humiliation of Maximilian’s execution, tarnished Napoleon III’s aura of success. It weakened confidence in his leadership ahead of growing European tensions.
Bismarck recognised that France’s failed adventure left it with fewer allies and diminished credibility. He resisted French demands for territorial “compensation” after 1866, knowing Napoleon was weakened.
By carefully controlling communications such as the Ems Dispatch, Bismarck ensured France appeared aggressive while Prussia seemed defensive. This manipulation made it harder for Napoleon III to rally diplomatic support before 1870.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year was Emperor Maximilian of Mexico executed, and why did this event damage Napoleon III’s prestige?
Mark Scheme
1 mark for identifying the year 1867.
1 mark for explaining that the execution symbolised the failure of Napoleon III’s Mexican adventure, undermining France’s international reputation.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Napoleon III’s foreign policies in Mexico and towards Prussia between 1866 and 1870 weakened his position at home and abroad.
Mark Scheme
Up to 2 marks for Mexico: e.g., high financial and military costs, US opposition (Monroe Doctrine), Maximilian’s failure and execution, diplomatic isolation.
Up to 2 marks for Prussia: e.g., failure to gain compensation after Austro-Prussian War (1866), rise of Prussia, France’s isolation.
Up to 2 marks for linking to consequences: e.g., weakened prestige, domestic criticism, left France diplomatically vulnerable before the Franco-Prussian War.
Maximum 6 marks for balanced coverage across both areas and explicit links to Napoleon’s weakened position.
