OCR Specification focus:
‘morale; strategies; the significance of major’
Westward expansion and the Civil War profoundly shaped American identity. Morale and strategies determined battlefield outcomes, influenced civilian resolve, and altered the broader trajectory of national conflict.
Morale in the Civil War
Morale among Union and Confederate Soldiers
The morale of soldiers was a decisive factor throughout the Civil War. Soldiers faced harsh conditions, poor supplies, and long campaigns. Union soldiers often had access to better supplies due to the North’s stronger industrial base, but even they suffered from disease, homesickness, and disillusionment. Confederate soldiers, meanwhile, experienced shortages of food, clothing, and ammunition, especially as the war dragged on.
Union morale rose after decisive victories such as Gettysburg (1863) and Sherman’s March to the Sea (1864). However, it plummeted after defeats like Fredericksburg (1862) and the costly stalemate at Cold Harbor (1864).
Confederate morale was high in the early years due to strong leadership under generals like Robert E. Lee and early victories. Over time, however, economic hardship, Union blockades, and heavy casualties eroded resolve.
Morale: The psychological state of confidence, enthusiasm, and discipline that affects the willingness of individuals or groups to persevere in challenging conditions.
Civilians and Morale on the Home Front
Civilian morale was equally critical. In the North, support for the war was divided. Copperheads (Northern Democrats opposed to the war) criticised Lincoln’s policies and fostered anti-war sentiment, while others rallied around Unionist and abolitionist causes.
In the Confederacy, civilians initially demonstrated strong resolve, but the effects of the Union blockade, inflation, and food shortages contributed to a collapse in morale by 1864–65. Desertion rates rose as soldiers left to care for families facing starvation.
Strategies in the Civil War
Union Strategies
The Union developed a long-term, resource-driven strategy to exploit its advantages in population and industry.
Anaconda Plan: Proposed by General Winfield Scott, this aimed to strangle the Confederacy by blockading southern ports and gaining control of the Mississippi River, thereby cutting the South in two.
Cartoon map showing the Union’s “Anaconda Plan” strategy with a snake encircling the Confederacy, emphasising the blockade and Mississippi River control. Source
Total War: By 1864, under leaders like Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman, the Union embraced a more aggressive approach. Sherman’s March to the Sea devastated infrastructure, industry, and civilian resources to break Confederate morale.
War of Attrition: Grant’s strategy from 1864 focused on relentless pressure against Confederate armies, accepting high casualties to exhaust the South’s limited manpower and supplies.
Confederate Strategies
The Confederacy faced the challenge of defending vast territory with fewer resources. Its strategy centred on endurance and diplomacy.
Defensive War of Attrition: The Confederacy sought to protect its homeland, hoping Northern resolve would weaken.
Offensive-defensive strategy: While mainly defensive, Confederate armies occasionally launched invasions into the North, such as Lee’s Maryland Campaign (1862) and the Gettysburg Campaign (1863), aiming to sway public opinion and secure foreign recognition.
Cotton Diplomacy: Southern leaders believed European powers, reliant on cotton imports, would recognise and aid the Confederacy. This strategy failed due to alternative supplies and Europe’s reluctance to support slavery.
The Role of Leadership and Strategy in Morale
Union Leadership
Abraham Lincoln’s determination and ability to communicate the moral purpose of the war, particularly after the Emancipation Proclamation (1863), helped maintain Northern morale. His appointment of Grant as General-in-Chief in 1864 ensured a coherent and aggressive military strategy.
Confederate Leadership
Jefferson Davis struggled to maintain unity among Confederate states. However, Robert E. Lee’s leadership inspired high morale among his troops, despite dwindling resources. Lee’s military genius allowed the Confederacy to hold out longer than expected, but his decision to invade the North at Gettysburg ultimately proved disastrous.
The Significance of Major Campaigns and Strategies
Antietam and Emancipation
The Battle of Antietam (1862) was a tactical stalemate but provided Lincoln the opportunity to issue the Emancipation Proclamation. This shifted the Union’s war aims to include abolition, energising Northern morale and deterring European intervention.
Gettysburg and the Turning Point
The Union victory at Gettysburg (1863) crushed Lee’s northern offensive and marked the high-water mark of Confederate hopes. Combined with the capture of Vicksburg, Union morale soared, while Confederate morale declined.
Sherman’s March and the Collapse of the Confederacy
Sherman’s campaign through Georgia demonstrated the effectiveness of scorched earth strategy. By targeting infrastructure and civilian resources, the Union undermined Confederate morale and hastened surrender.
Official War Department map showing Sherman’s March from Atlanta to Savannah, with routes and key dates, illustrating the Union’s total war strategy. Source
War Weariness and Final Defeat
By 1865, Union strategies of attrition, blockade, and total war had decisively broken the Confederate war effort. Confederate morale collapsed as Union forces advanced into the South, culminating in Lee’s surrender at Appomattox Court House.
The Interdependence of Morale and Strategy
Morale and strategies in the Civil War were inseparable. Effective strategies often boosted morale, while poor morale undermined strategic aims. For example, the Confederate failure to secure foreign aid through cotton diplomacy eroded civilian faith in victory, while the Union’s military successes, paired with clear political goals, maintained enough Northern morale to see the war through to its conclusion.
FAQ
Desertion weakened the fighting strength of both armies but had especially severe consequences for the Confederacy. Many Confederate soldiers left to support families struggling with food shortages and poverty.
For Union forces, desertion was less damaging overall due to larger troop numbers, but it still undermined morale in regiments with heavy desertion rates, fuelling distrust among officers.
The proclamation reframed the war as a fight against slavery as well as for union. This moral purpose boosted Northern civilian and soldier commitment, presenting the war as a just cause.
It also reduced opposition from anti-slavery factions in the North and weakened Confederate hopes of foreign recognition, further strengthening Union confidence.
For the Union, extensive railway networks improved supply delivery, troop movements, and communication, helping sustain morale in long campaigns.
In the Confederacy, the destruction of railway lines during Sherman’s March left communities isolated, contributing to despair and lowering confidence in eventual victory.
In the Union, newspapers highlighted victories and emphasised the justice of the cause, helping to rally support, though reports of high casualties could undermine morale.
In the Confederacy, propaganda portrayed the struggle as a defence of homeland and liberty. However, as defeats mounted, censorship and exaggerated claims became less credible, damaging trust in leadership.
Yes. Religion offered soldiers on both sides a framework for endurance and sacrifice. Chaplains, prayer meetings, and the belief in divine support sustained morale during hardship.
In the Confederacy, faith was often tied to the idea of a righteous struggle for independence. In the Union, many soldiers interpreted battlefield successes as evidence of God’s favour for their cause.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two factors that influenced the morale of Confederate soldiers during the later years of the Civil War.
Mark Scheme
1 mark for each correct factor identified, up to 2 marks.
Acceptable answers include:Shortages of food, clothing, and ammunition.
Economic hardship and inflation.
Union blockade restricting supplies.
High casualties and desertion rates.
Declining civilian support on the home front.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Union military strategies contributed to the eventual collapse of Confederate morale during the Civil War.
Mark Scheme
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Simple statements with limited explanation, e.g., “The Union blockaded southern ports which made it hard for the South.”
Little or no link between strategy and morale.
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Some explanation of specific strategies, such as the Anaconda Plan, total war, or attrition.
Partial explanation of how these affected Confederate morale, e.g., food shortages or destruction of infrastructure.
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Clear and developed explanation of at least two strategies.
Explicit linkage between strategy and the breakdown of Confederate morale.
Examples may include:
Anaconda Plan limiting supplies, lowering civilian and soldier morale.
Sherman’s March to the Sea deliberately targeting resources and infrastructure, breaking the will of civilians.
Grant’s war of attrition exhausting Confederate armies and weakening confidence in eventual victory.
