OCR Specification focus:
‘relations with the USA; participation in the First World War; the 21 Demands’
Japan’s foreign relations and wartime involvement between 1914 and 1919 marked a transformative period, strengthening economic influence, diplomatic ties, and nationalist ambitions, while shaping long-term tensions with Western powers.
Relations with the United States
Early Tensions and Cooperation
Japan’s rise as a regional power following the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) brought it into closer contact with the United States, especially over interests in China and the Pacific. The US viewed Japan’s growing military and industrial capacity with suspicion, while Japan feared American ambitions in the Pacific. However, both nations also recognised the need for cooperation, particularly in safeguarding trade and maintaining regional stability.
The Root-Takahira Agreement (1908) confirmed the principle of maintaining the status quo in the Pacific.
Mutual recognition of territorial holdings — Japan in Korea, the US in the Philippines — reflected a balance of power.
Despite these agreements, underlying friction persisted, especially concerning immigration and influence in China.
Immigration Issues
One of the most contentious areas of US–Japan relations was Japanese immigration to the United States, particularly California. American hostility towards Japanese settlers resulted in social and political disputes.
Gentlemen’s Agreement (1907–1908): An informal diplomatic understanding where Japan agreed to restrict emigration of labourers to the US, while the US promised to reduce discrimination against existing Japanese residents.
Although this eased tensions temporarily, resentment continued and would later influence Japanese nationalism, as exclusionary policies were perceived as racial insults.
Japan’s Participation in the First World War
Entry into the War
Japan entered the First World War in August 1914, honouring its alliance with Britain. Its immediate motives were strategic: to seize German possessions in East Asia and strengthen its position in China.
Japan quickly captured German-controlled territories in Shandong Province (China).
It also occupied German islands in the Pacific Ocean, extending influence into Micronesia.
This involvement was militarily limited but highly advantageous, as it expanded Japanese control without heavy casualties.
Japan’s first major action in the war was the Siege of Tsingtao (October–November 1914), conducted with British support to eliminate Germany’s East Asian base.
A contemporary map of the Siege of Tsingtao (1914) showing the German-leased territory around Jiaozhou Bay and fortified approaches to Qingdao. It clarifies the geography of Japan’s WWI campaign and why seizing Tsingtao mattered strategically. The German-language cartouche reflects the original 1919 source but does not affect the map’s educational value. Source
Economic Gains
The war provided Japan with unprecedented opportunities for economic growth. With European powers preoccupied, Japan became a major supplier of industrial goods, textiles, and shipping services across Asia.
Industrial production surged, particularly in silk, cotton, and steel.
Merchant shipping profits soared as Japanese companies replaced European competitors.
This wartime boom accelerated Japan’s transition into a modern industrialised nation, reinforcing its status as a major regional power.
The Twenty-One Demands (1915)
Background and Content
Japan sought to consolidate its influence in China while European powers were distracted by the war. In January 1915, the Japanese government issued the Twenty-One Demands to China.
These demands included expanded economic rights in Manchuria and Shandong, control of Chinese mining and railway concessions, and influence over Chinese political and military affairs.
The most controversial "Group Five" demanded that China accept Japanese advisors in government, effectively reducing China to a protectorate.
Twenty-One Demands: A set of conditions presented by Japan to China in 1915, aimed at expanding Japanese economic, political, and territorial influence during the distraction of the First World War.
Although China, under duress, accepted most of the demands, international backlash was immediate.
International Reaction
The United States strongly opposed the demands, issuing the Bryan Note (1915), which reiterated support for China’s territorial integrity and the Open Door Policy.
Britain, though an ally of Japan, was uneasy about the extent of Japanese ambitions.
The episode damaged Japan’s international reputation, portraying it as an aggressor. It also deepened mistrust with the United States, which increasingly viewed Japan as a threat to its interests in China.
Japan at the Paris Peace Conference (1919)
Achievements
Japan emerged from the war with tangible territorial and diplomatic rewards:
Recognition of its claims to former German territories in Shandong and the Pacific islands north of the equator.
Inclusion among the major Allied powers, participating directly in post-war negotiations.
Japan’s role at the conference confirmed its status as a global power.
Under the League of Nations system, Japan obtained a Class C mandate over Germany’s Micronesian islands (the South Seas Mandate), expanding its strategic reach across the Central Pacific.
Map of the South Pacific Mandate (1930s), indicating the Japanese-administered Caroline, Marshall and Mariana Islands (excluding Guam). It visually connects wartime gains to interwar control and naval basing potential. Source
Controversies
Despite these gains, Japan also encountered setbacks at the conference:
Its proposal for a racial equality clause in the Covenant of the League of Nations was rejected, primarily due to opposition from Britain and the United States.
This rejection reinforced Japanese perceptions of Western hypocrisy and racism.
The unresolved Shandong issue also caused tension, as China resented the transfer of German concessions to Japan, sparking nationalist protests.
At the Paris Peace Conference (1919), Japan’s delegation—fronted by Saionji Kinmochi and Makino Nobuaki—secured Shandong concessions but failed to pass the Racial Equality Proposal.
Impact on Japanese–American Relations
Cooperation and Conflict
Japan’s wartime actions brought both cooperation and new friction with the United States:
Cooperation was seen in Japan’s support for the Allies and maintenance of Pacific stability.
Conflict arose over Japan’s dominance in China, which clashed with American support for the Open Door Policy.
The United States increasingly opposed Japanese expansionism, particularly after the Twenty-One Demands, marking the beginning of a more adversarial relationship.
Long-Term Significance
By 1920, Japan had achieved significant power gains but at the cost of worsening relations with the United States. The wartime boom also fuelled domestic expectations for further expansion, setting the stage for rising nationalism in the 1920s and 1930s.
Japan’s relations with the US during and after the First World War were thus defined by both strategic cooperation and growing mistrust, laying foundations for future conflict.
FAQ
Japan recognised that the European powers were heavily engaged in the conflict in Europe, leaving their Asian possessions vulnerable. Germany’s colonies in Shandong and Micronesia offered valuable resources and strategic bases.
By acting quickly, Japan could strengthen its regional dominance without major military risks and secure recognition of these gains through the post-war settlement.
The United States was wary of Japan’s expansion, fearing it threatened the Open Door Policy and American commercial interests in China.
Although the US tolerated Japan’s control during the war, it pressed for the eventual return of Shandong to China and criticised Japan’s actions as opportunistic. This helped set the stage for growing rivalry in the Pacific.
The decision sparked outrage among Chinese nationalists, who saw it as a betrayal by the Western powers.
The May Fourth Movement (1919) emerged, with students leading protests against both the Western powers and the weakness of the Chinese government.
These demonstrations accelerated anti-imperialist sentiment and encouraged the rise of modern Chinese nationalism.
The alliance, first signed in 1902, obliged Japan to support Britain against German naval threats in Asia.
While Britain welcomed Japan’s assistance at Tsingtao and in protecting sea lanes, it was uneasy about Japan’s ambitions in China. Thus, the alliance was both a source of cooperation and a cause of suspicion among Western allies.
Japan replaced European suppliers in Asian markets, exporting textiles, coal, steel, and shipping services.
Exports quadrupled during the war years, and Japan became a creditor nation for the first time.
This economic surge strengthened domestic industry and gave Japan greater leverage in international finance, though it also created inflation and social strains at home.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Japan present the Twenty-One Demands to China?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying the correct year.
Correct answer: 1915 (2 marks).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two ways in which Japan’s participation in the First World War affected its international position by 1919.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each explanation (2 × 3 = 6).
Award 1 mark for a simple statement, 2 marks for a developed explanation, and 3 marks for a fully developed explanation showing clear understanding of impact.
Examples:
Territorial expansion (up to 3 marks): Japan seized German possessions in Shandong and the Pacific, which were later confirmed as mandates, giving Japan greater influence in Asia and the Pacific.
Diplomatic status (up to 3 marks): Japan gained recognition as one of the major Allied powers at the Paris Peace Conference, but failure of the Racial Equality Proposal exposed Western hostility, affecting future relations.
Other valid points:
Economic growth due to wartime trade opportunities.
Increased tension with the USA over China and the Twenty-One Demands.
