OCR Specification focus:
‘the Locarno Treaties; the Kellogg-Briand Pact the Kellogg-Briand Pact’
The Locarno Treaties and Kellogg-Briand Pact marked crucial attempts at stabilising interwar Europe, promoting peace, and redefining international diplomacy after the First World War.
The Locarno Treaties (1925)
Background and Context
The Locarno Treaties were a series of agreements negotiated in October 1925 and signed in December in London. They were designed to create a sense of security in Europe following the instability of the post-war period and to address tensions caused by the Treaty of Versailles (1919).
Key motivations included:
France’s need for security against potential German aggression.
Germany’s desire for normalisation of its international status after Versailles.
Britain’s aim to act as a mediator, avoiding direct entanglement in continental politics while supporting stability.
Main Agreements
The Locarno Pact was composed of several treaties:
Rhineland Pact: Germany, France, and Belgium agreed to accept their post-Versailles borders, guaranteed by Britain and Italy.
Arbitration Treaties: Germany signed arbitration agreements with France, Belgium, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, committing to peaceful settlement of disputes.
Mutual Defence Agreements: France signed treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia, reaffirming defensive commitments.
Locarno Spirit: The optimistic sense of peace and cooperation in Europe following the signing of the Locarno Treaties.
This “Locarno Spirit” was celebrated as the dawn of a new era of peace and international cooperation.
Key negotiators Stresemann, Briand and Chamberlain epitomised the so-called ‘Spirit of Locarno’ during the October 1925 talks.
Consequences of Locarno
The Locarno Treaties had several significant outcomes:
Germany’s reintegration into Europe: Germany was admitted into the League of Nations in 1926.
Reduced Franco-German tensions: The recognition of borders provided reassurance, especially for France.
Shift in alliances: Britain’s role as guarantor showed reluctance for continental entanglement but gave moral weight to enforcement.
Eastern Europe’s disappointment: Poland and Czechoslovakia felt betrayed as their borders were not equally guaranteed.
The Locarno Treaties provided short-term optimism but left unresolved issues in Eastern Europe, creating future vulnerabilities.
The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928)
Origins and Negotiation
The Kellogg-Briand Pact, also known as the Pact of Paris, was signed in August 1928. Initiated by Aristide Briand of France and Frank Kellogg, the US Secretary of State, it aimed to extend Locarno’s spirit globally.
France initially proposed a bilateral Franco-American treaty to outlaw war between the two nations.
Kellogg broadened the proposal into a multilateral treaty, avoiding the appearance of entangling alliances for the USA.
Core Terms
The Kellogg-Briand Pact declared that:
Signatories renounced war as an instrument of national policy.
States would resolve disputes by peaceful means only.
Kellogg-Briand Pact: An international treaty signed in 1928 where 62 states renounced war as an instrument of policy and pledged peaceful dispute resolution.
By 1929, a total of 62 nations had signed the pact, including all major powers.
The Kellogg–Briand Pact (Pact of Paris), 1928 renounced war as an instrument of national policy and was initially signed by 15 states.
Aristide Briand speaks during the signing of the Kellogg–Briand Pact in 1928; Frank B. Kellogg sits to his left, with Gustav Stresemann among the delegates. The scene demonstrates the multilateral ambition to outlaw war as a tool of policy. Source
Impact and Limitations
The pact carried considerable symbolic importance but also clear limitations:
No enforcement mechanism: There were no sanctions for breaking the agreement.
Ambiguity: It did not define what constituted self-defence.
Effectiveness questioned: The pact did not prevent acts of aggression in the 1930s, such as the Japanese invasion of Manchuria (1931) or Mussolini’s attack on Abyssinia (1935).
Nevertheless, it represented a landmark in international law, influencing later developments such as the United Nations Charter after 1945.
Comparison and Link between Locarno and Kellogg-Briand
Similarities
Both reflected a genuine desire for peace in the interwar years.
Both relied heavily on diplomatic goodwill rather than coercion.
Both helped reintegrate Germany and reduce post-Versailles tensions.
Differences
The Locarno Treaties were regional in focus, centred on Western Europe and guaranteeing specific borders.
The Kellogg-Briand Pact was global, with dozens of signatories committing to renounce war in principle.
Under the Rhineland Pact, the demilitarised zone on Germany’s western frontier was to be permanent, with Britain and Italy pledging to respond to any violation.
Map of the Rhineland showing Allied occupation zones (1919–1930). This clarifies the geography behind permanent demilitarisation agreed at Locarno. Source
Legacy
While often dismissed as “scraps of paper”, both agreements are historically significant because:
They reflected the widespread pacifist sentiment of the 1920s.
They demonstrated the limitations of diplomacy without force.
They set legal and moral precedents for the idea that aggressive war is illegitimate, shaping international law in the long term.
Key Takeaways
The Locarno Treaties (1925) provided immediate European stability, especially between France and Germany, though Eastern Europe was left vulnerable.
The Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928) was a bold global attempt to outlaw war but suffered from lack of enforcement and clarity.
Both agreements symbolised the optimism of the 1920s but ultimately failed to prevent the drift toward renewed conflict in the 1930s.
FAQ
Britain sought to prevent another major European conflict without committing to permanent continental alliances. By guaranteeing Western borders, it avoided binding promises in Eastern Europe.
This approach reflected Britain’s desire for a balance-of-power role rather than deep entanglement, while still reassuring France and calming tensions with Germany
Germany gained international prestige and showed it could act as a responsible partner in diplomacy.
It strengthened Stresemann’s policy of fulfilment, easing reparations negotiations.
It reassured investors abroad, encouraging economic recovery through loans like the Dawes Plan.
In the United States, strong anti-war sentiment encouraged Kellogg to accept Briand’s proposal, as voters wanted to avoid entanglement in European conflicts.
Across Europe, the Pact appealed to widespread pacifist feeling, especially among populations still recovering from the devastation of the First World War.
Their borders with Germany were not guaranteed in the same way as France and Belgium’s.
This left them feeling vulnerable to future German aggression, as the Western powers prioritised Western European security over Eastern European stability.
Although unenforceable in the 1930s, the Pact established a legal precedent that aggressive war was illegitimate.
This principle was invoked at the Nuremberg Trials after 1945, where leaders were prosecuted for crimes against peace, showing the Pact’s long-term significance.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name two agreements included within the Locarno Treaties of 1925.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correct agreement named (maximum 2).
Acceptable answers include:Rhineland Pact
Arbitration Treaties (with France, Belgium, Poland, or Czechoslovakia)
Mutual Defence Agreements (France with Poland and/or Czechoslovakia)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why the Kellogg–Briand Pact of 1928 had limited effectiveness.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 3 marks per reason (maximum 6).
Marks awarded for identification (1 mark), explanation (1 mark), and development or supporting detail (1 mark).
Possible reasons include:
Lack of enforcement mechanism: No sanctions or military means to punish violators.
Ambiguity of terms: Did not clearly define self-defence, allowing aggressive states to justify actions.
Reliance on goodwill: The pact depended on nations’ voluntary compliance, which proved unrealistic.
Historical examples: Failures such as Japan’s invasion of Manchuria (1931) and Italy’s invasion of Abyssinia (1935) demonstrated its weakness.
Examiners should credit any valid explanation consistent with the specification focus.
