OCR Specification focus:
‘the impact of the Depression on Japan; the origins and impact of the Manchurian Crisis’
The Great Depression profoundly destabilised Japan’s fragile economy and political system, fostering aggressive nationalism and militarism that ultimately drove expansion into Manchuria in 1931.
The Impact of the Depression on Japan
Economic Consequences
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 triggered a collapse in global trade, hitting Japan especially hard. Japan’s economy relied heavily on exports of silk, textiles, and other light industrial goods.
Silk exports, Japan’s main foreign currency earner, fell by almost two-thirds between 1929 and 1931.
Unemployment surged, with thousands of urban workers laid off from factories.
Rural communities were devastated as falling prices for silk and rice undermined incomes, leaving peasants impoverished.
Great Depression: A worldwide economic downturn that began with the Wall Street Crash of 1929, leading to mass unemployment, falling trade, and severe social dislocation.
The crisis weakened faith in democratic politicians, whose policies of fiscal restraint and international cooperation seemed incapable of alleviating suffering. Many Japanese turned to militarists who promised national revival and expansion abroad.
Social Strains
The Depression intensified class divisions:
Peasants struggled with starvation and poverty, leading to reports of families selling daughters into prostitution.
Middle-class shopkeepers and professionals saw incomes shrink, fuelling resentment against urban elites and politicians.
Workers joined radical movements, increasing fears of socialism among conservative elites.
This breakdown of social stability gave the military greater political legitimacy as a force of decisive action.
The Origins of the Manchurian Crisis
Strategic Importance of Manchuria
Manchuria, in northeastern China, held great significance for Japan:
Rich in coal, iron, and farmland, providing vital resources for industrial expansion.
Seen as a buffer zone against Soviet Russia.
The South Manchurian Railway, under Japanese control since the Russo-Japanese War (1904–05), gave Tokyo both economic interests and military leverage.
Map of Manchukuo’s railway network highlighting trunk lines used by Japan to project economic and military power. The South Manchurian Railway linked key cities and ports, underpinning expansion. Source
Kwantung Army: A Japanese military force stationed in Manchuria, originally tasked with guarding the South Manchurian Railway, but which became a centre of aggressive expansionism.
Rising Militarism
The Depression convinced many Japanese leaders that Japan needed an autarkic economic bloc to ensure self-sufficiency. Manchuria was viewed as the solution.
Civilian politicians urged restraint to avoid alienating the USA and Britain.
The Kwantung Army acted independently, arguing that bold moves abroad would unite the nation and solve economic woes.
The Mukden Incident, 1931
On 18 September 1931, Japanese officers staged an explosion on the South Manchurian Railway near Mukden (Shenyang), blaming it on Chinese forces.
The blast site near Liutiao Lake during the Mukden Incident. Note the limited track damage, consistent with accounts that the explosion was insufficient to stop trains. This historical photo includes a body at the scene—detail not required by the syllabus but present in the source. Source
This false flag operation provided justification for immediate military occupation.
Within months, the Japanese army had seized control of Manchuria, acting without prior authorisation from Tokyo’s civilian government.
Mukden Incident: A staged event in 1931 in which Japanese soldiers fabricated an attack on their railway to justify the invasion of Manchuria.
The Impact of the Manchurian Crisis
Establishment of Manchukuo
By 1932, Japan declared the creation of Manchukuo, a puppet state ruled by former Qing Emperor Puyi, though real power rested with the Japanese military.
Presented as an act of liberation, it was in reality an imperialist seizure of territory.
The League of Nations investigated, concluding that Japan had acted as an aggressor.
International Reaction
The Lytton Commission (1931–32) condemned the invasion but stopped short of demanding military sanctions.
In 1933, Japan withdrew from the League of Nations, demonstrating its rejection of collective diplomacy.
Western powers, themselves weakened by the Depression, failed to take strong action, effectively encouraging Japanese aggression.
Domestic Consequences in Japan
The success in Manchuria transformed Japan’s political landscape:
The Kwantung Army and other militarists gained prestige, undermining civilian government.
Expansionism became a cornerstone of national policy.
Critics of the invasion were silenced, strengthening authoritarian control.
Broader Impact on International Relations
The Manchurian Crisis:
Exposed the League of Nations’ weakness, showing its inability to enforce collective security.
Encouraged other revisionist powers such as Hitler’s Germany and Mussolini’s Italy, who saw that aggression could succeed without serious consequences.
Marked a turning point in Japanese foreign policy towards sustained military expansion in East Asia, leading eventually to full-scale war with China in 1937.
Key Points to Remember
The Depression devastated Japan’s economy, discrediting democratic politics and fuelling militarist solutions.
Manchuria offered both economic resources and strategic security, making it a prime target.
The Mukden Incident was used as a pretext for invasion, leading to the establishment of Manchukuo.
International condemnation was weak, emboldening Japan and undermining the credibility of the League of Nations.
The Crisis consolidated militarism in Japan, setting the stage for further aggression in Asia.
FAQ
Japanese propaganda depicted Manchukuo as a model state built on cooperation between Japanese, Chinese, and Manchu peoples.
It emphasised the idea of “Asian brotherhood” under Japan’s leadership, presenting the occupation as liberation from Chinese warlordism. Posters and films highlighted industrial development and order, concealing the reality of military dominance and exploitation.
The Kwantung Army operated with a high degree of autonomy due to its distance from Tokyo and its control of the South Manchurian Railway zone.
Civilian leaders feared domestic backlash if they appeared weak against a successful military campaign. Attempts to discipline officers risked political destabilisation, as the military increasingly influenced policy and public opinion during the Depression.
The Lytton Report, published in 1932, criticised Japan’s actions but recommended limited reforms rather than forceful sanctions.
It recognised China’s sovereignty but also suggested autonomy for Manchuria, effectively legitimising some Japanese claims.
The delay in publishing (almost a year after the invasion) highlighted the League’s inefficiency.
Its cautious conclusions demonstrated the League’s weakness, emboldening Japan and other aggressive states.
The crisis deepened divisions within China.
The Nationalist government under Chiang Kai-shek faced criticism for failing to resist Japan militarily, damaging its prestige.
Local warlords often prioritised their own survival rather than national defence.
The crisis contributed to rising support for the Chinese Communist Party, which presented itself as more committed to resisting Japanese aggression.
Although not a League member, the USA condemned Japan’s actions through the Stimson Doctrine (1932).
This declared the US would not recognise territorial acquisitions made by force.
However, the US avoided direct intervention due to isolationist policies and economic pressures at home.
The response was largely symbolic, reflecting America’s reluctance to act despite its interests in the Pacific.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Give two reasons why Japan considered Manchuria to be of strategic importance in the early 1930s.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each valid reason (up to 2 marks).
Acceptable points include:
Manchuria was rich in coal, iron, and farmland.
It provided vital resources for Japan’s industry.
It acted as a buffer zone against Soviet Russia.
Control of the South Manchurian Railway gave Japan economic and military leverage.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the Great Depression contributed to the outbreak of the Manchurian Crisis in 1931.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Simple statements or generalised points, e.g. “Japan was poor” or “the army wanted more land.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation with limited development, e.g. “The Depression reduced Japan’s silk exports, which made the economy weaker, so Japan wanted resources from Manchuria.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Developed explanation making clear links between economic crisis and aggressive expansion, e.g. “The Depression caused Japan’s silk exports to collapse, leading to rural poverty and unemployment. Civilian politicians seemed powerless, which discredited democracy and encouraged support for the army. Militarists argued that conquering Manchuria would provide resources and an autarkic bloc, directly fuelling the Mukden Incident and subsequent invasion.”
