OCR Specification focus:
‘preparations for and domestic impact of war; Jewish policy in 1930s.’
Italy under Mussolini faced major changes in the late 1930s as Fascist priorities shifted towards war and racial policy, reshaping society, economy, and governance.
Preparations for War
From the mid-1930s, Mussolini’s foreign policy ambitions demanded substantial military and economic preparation. The Abyssinian War (1935–1936) and Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) had already drained resources, leaving Italy poorly equipped for large-scale conflict. Yet, Mussolini remained committed to a policy of expansion and alignment with Germany.
Economic Mobilisation
Mussolini aimed to create an autarkic economy—an economy self-sufficient and able to withstand wartime blockades. This required significant changes in resource allocation and industrial priorities:
Raw materials: Italy lacked essential resources such as coal, iron ore, and oil, making true autarky unrealistic.
Import restrictions: The regime imposed tariffs and encouraged domestic production to reduce reliance on imports.
Industrial reorganisation: Greater emphasis was placed on heavy industry, steel, and chemicals for armament production.
The IRI (Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale) expanded control over key sectors, reflecting state intervention in the economy.
Military spending rose dramatically in the late 1930s, consuming nearly one-third of the state budget by 1938.
Military Expansion
Despite rhetoric of creating a great military power, Italy’s preparations were limited by:
Obsolete equipment: The army relied on outdated weapons from World War I.
Poor logistics: Transport and supply networks were inadequate for sustained campaigns.
Dual war commitment: Mussolini prepared for simultaneous operations in Europe and North Africa, stretching resources thin.
The Rome-Berlin Axis (1936) and later the Pact of Steel (1939) further tied Italy to German strategic planning, making war involvement inevitable.
Domestic Impact of War Preparations
The shift to a war economy and militarisation affected Italian society profoundly.
Economic Strain and Living Standards
The cost of rearmament caused:
Higher taxation and public debt, reducing household purchasing power.
Price controls and rationing introduced gradually from 1939 onwards.
Decline in consumer goods production, leading to shortages of basic necessities.
Industrial workers faced longer hours and strict controls under Fascist corporatism, while wages lagged behind inflation, intensifying social tensions.
Political and Social Control
Mussolini used the coming war as justification for greater authoritarianism:
Propaganda campaigns stressed the need for sacrifice and glorified militarism.
Censorship increased, restricting criticism of foreign policy or economic hardships.
The OVRA (secret police) intensified surveillance of dissent.
The regime encouraged youth through organisations like Balilla and GIL (Gioventù Italiana del Littorio) to embrace militarism, discipline, and loyalty to the Duce.
Gender and Family Policies
The Fascist state promoted population growth as part of war readiness. This linked to the Battle for Births, which rewarded large families and penalised bachelors. Women were urged to leave employment for domestic roles to increase birth rates, but these policies had limited success.
Jewish Policy in the 1930s
The introduction of anti-Semitic legislation in 1938 marked a radical shift in Fascist policy. Previously, Italian Fascism had shown little racial animosity, focusing instead on nationalism and loyalty to the state. The change reflected alignment with Nazi Germany and Mussolini’s desire to strengthen ties with Hitler.
The Racial Laws of 1938
These laws, announced after the publication of the Manifesto of Racial Scientists, aimed to segregate and discriminate against Italian Jews.
Front-page headline from Corriere della Sera (11 November 1938) declaring the approval of Italy’s Racial Laws—visually capturing the regime’s official and public shift to anti-Jewish policy. Source
Key measures included:
Exclusion from education: Jewish children were barred from state schools and universities.
Employment bans: Jews were dismissed from teaching, civil service, and professions like law and journalism.
Property restrictions: Limits on land and business ownership.
Intermarriage prohibition: Mixed marriages between Jews and non-Jews were banned.
Anti-Semitic Legislation: A set of laws introduced by the Fascist regime in 1938 to restrict the civil rights, economic participation, and social integration of Jews in Italy.
Propaganda and Public Reaction
The regime launched propaganda campaigns presenting Jews as foreign elements incompatible with Fascist ideals. However, anti-Semitism had little popular support in Italy; many Italians viewed these laws as unnecessary or unjust.
Mussolini’s motivation was primarily political rather than ideological. By adopting racial policy, he aimed to:
Demonstrate loyalty to the Axis alliance.
Emphasise Italy’s claim to racial superiority in its colonial empire.
Consequences for Italian Jews
Around 46,000 Jews lived in Italy in the late 1930s. While persecution was less severe than in Nazi Germany, Jews faced:
Loss of livelihood and property due to exclusionary laws.
Social isolation and stigma within communities.
Increased vulnerability during World War II, culminating in deportations to Nazi camps after 1943.
Strategic Miscalculations
Despite propaganda boasting Italy’s readiness, the country entered the Second World War in June 1940 economically and militarily unprepared. The extensive preparations of the late 1930s failed to compensate for structural weaknesses, leaving Italy dependent on Germany for resources and support once conflict began.
FAQ
Mussolini delayed racial laws because Fascism initially focused on nationalism rather than biological racism. Early policy emphasised loyalty to the state, not race.
The shift occurred in 1938 to strengthen ties with Hitler and demonstrate ideological unity within the Axis. It was a political move rather than a response to domestic anti-Semitic pressure, which was minimal in Italy.
Jewish teachers were dismissed from state schools and universities, and Jewish students were banned from attending.
Some Jewish schools were created privately to accommodate excluded children, but resources were limited. This disruption had long-term effects on education and employment opportunities for Jewish Italians.
The regime launched propaganda through:
Newspapers highlighting “scientific racism”.
Posters and school textbooks promoting Aryan characteristics.
Public speeches linking racial policy to Italy’s imperial ambitions.
These efforts aimed to reshape public attitudes, though most Italians showed little enthusiasm for racial ideology.
Measures included:
Encouraging domestic substitutes for imported goods (e.g., synthetic fibres for textiles).
Expanding agricultural output via land reclamation.
Promoting Italian coal and oil substitutes, though these were inadequate.
Despite these steps, Italy still relied heavily on foreign imports, especially from Germany.
Yes, there was widespread passive resistance. Many Italians continued personal and professional relationships with Jews despite legal prohibitions.
Some local officials were lenient in enforcement, and the Catholic Church publicly criticised aspects of the policy. However, open opposition was rare due to strict censorship and the risk of OVRA surveillance.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the main purpose of the 1938 Italian Racial Laws?
Question 1 (2 marks)
Award 1 mark for a basic statement of purpose.
Award 1 additional mark for a developed explanation.
Examples:
To discriminate against Jews in Italy (1 mark).
To align Italy with Nazi Germany and exclude Jews from public life (2 marks).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two ways in which Mussolini’s preparations for war in the late 1930s affected Italian society.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Award up to 3 marks for each way explained.
Each explanation must include an effect on Italian society for full marks.
Indicative content:
Economic impact: Increased military spending reduced consumer goods production, causing shortages and lower living standards (3 marks).
Social control: Propaganda and youth organisations promoted militarism, while censorship and surveillance tightened to suppress dissent (3 marks).
Partial marks:
1 mark for identification (e.g., “There was economic strain”).
2 marks for adding some detail (e.g., “There was economic strain due to rearmament”).
3 marks for full explanation with societal effect (e.g., “Economic strain occurred because rearmament led to higher taxes, rationing, and lower living standards for ordinary Italians”).
