OCR Specification focus:
‘policy towards Britain, France, Austria and Germany including Stresa Front, Abyssinian War; Spanish Civil War, Rome-Berlin Axis, Anti-Comintern pact, Munich Conference, Pact of Steel; Albania’
Italy’s foreign policy between 1925 and 1939 reflected Mussolini’s ambition for prestige and empire. Shifting alliances, opportunism, and expansionism defined relations with Britain, France, Germany, and involvement in Spain.
Mussolini’s Foreign Policy Aims
Mussolini sought to make Italy a Great Power by expanding its influence in Europe and Africa. This required challenging the post-1919 settlement and projecting Italian dominance in the Mediterranean.
Key Objectives
Secure Italy’s position as a Mediterranean power.
Expand influence in Africa and the Balkans.
Assert Fascist ideology abroad as a rival to communism.
Maintain independence from both Britain and Germany while exploiting their rivalries.
The Stresa Front (1935)
The Stresa Front was an agreement between Britain, France, and Italy aimed at upholding the Treaty of Versailles and preventing German rearmament.
Signed in April 1935 at Stresa, Italy.
Purpose: Reinforce Austrian independence and contain Hitler’s expansion following his reintroduction of conscription.
Outcome: Short-lived unity. Britain undermined it by signing the Anglo-German Naval Agreement (June 1935), angering Mussolini.
Stresa Front: A diplomatic agreement between Britain, France, and Italy to oppose German violations of the Treaty of Versailles.
The Stresa Front signalled cooperation, but Mussolini soon shifted due to events in Africa.
The Abyssinian War (1935–1936)
Mussolini invaded Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in October 1935, seeking imperial glory and revenge for Italy’s defeat at Adwa (1896).
Consequences for Relations with Britain and France
Britain and France, initially conciliatory, imposed economic sanctions through the League of Nations.
The Hoare–Laval Pact (secret plan to appease Italy) failed, causing public outrage in Britain and France.
Britain’s decision to close the Suez Canal to Italian shipping strained relations further.
By 1936, sanctions alienated Mussolini, pushing him towards Germany.
Spanish Civil War (1936–1939)
The Spanish Civil War became a critical turning point in Mussolini’s foreign policy alignment.
Began July 1936 between the Republican government and Nationalists led by Francisco Franco.
Mussolini sent troops, aircraft, and military equipment to support Franco, hoping to:
Spread Fascist influence.
Counter communist ideology.
Secure a friendly regime in Spain.
Italy sent troops, aircraft, and military equipment to support Franco, hoping to spread Fascist influence…
A labeled map demonstrating the geographic division of Spain between Republican and Nationalist zones. It provides a clear visual reference to the conflict’s scale and helps contextualise Italy’s military support. Source
Italy deployed 70,000 troops, but the war was costly, draining resources and damaging Italy’s economy.
This map shows the territorial division between Republican (typically blue) and Nationalist (typically red) controlled areas during the Spanish Civil War. Source
Impact on Relations
Britain and France pursued non-intervention, while Mussolini ignored it, deepening tensions.
The conflict strengthened ties with Hitler, who also supported Franco.
Rome-Berlin Axis: A 1936 agreement signalling political and military alignment between Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.
Alignment with Germany
From 1936, Italy increasingly aligned with Germany due to isolation from Britain and France.
Key Agreements
Rome-Berlin Axis (October 1936): Informal agreement marking ideological solidarity and cooperation in foreign policy.
Anti-Comintern Pact (November 1937): Italy joined Germany and Japan in opposing international communism, signalling a clear break with Western democracies.
Reasons for Alignment
Britain and France’s hostility over Abyssinia.
Germany’s growing power and mutual interests in Spain.
Mussolini’s ambition for a ‘New Roman Empire’.
Munich Conference (1938)
Mussolini acted as mediator during the Munich Conference, which resolved the Sudetenland crisis between Germany and Czechoslovakia.
Presented himself as a peacemaker, enhancing prestige temporarily.
In reality, Italy’s influence was limited compared to Germany.
Pact of Steel (1939)
The Pact of Steel, signed May 1939, formalised the military alliance between Italy and Germany.
Committed both nations to mutual support in war.
Italy was unprepared for conflict, yet Mussolini signed to maintain influence.
This marked the end of Italy’s attempts to balance relations with Britain and France.
Pact of Steel: A 1939 military alliance obliging Italy and Germany to assist each other in war, deepening the Axis partnership.
Albania (1939)
In April 1939, Mussolini ordered the invasion of Albania to assert dominance in the Balkans and compensate for Italy’s subordinate role to Germany.
Britain and France responded with guarantees to Greece and Romania, signalling a total collapse in relations with Italy.
Overall Impact on Relations
Early cooperation with Britain and France (Stresa Front) gave way to hostility after Abyssinia.
Spanish Civil War entrenched Italy’s alignment with Germany.
By 1939, Italy’s foreign policy was dominated by dependence on Nazi Germany, abandoning any independent role as a Mediterranean power.
FAQ
The Stresa Front initially boosted Mussolini’s international credibility, portraying him as a defender of European stability.
It gave Italy leverage in negotiations with Britain and France, which Mussolini hoped to use for colonial concessions. However, the Anglo-German Naval Agreement quickly undermined it, convincing Mussolini that Britain was unreliable as an ally.
The Hoare–Laval Pact was seen as a betrayal of the League of Nations’ principle of collective security.
The deal aimed to partition Abyssinia, rewarding Mussolini’s aggression. When leaked in the press, the British public viewed it as appeasement of fascist aggression, leading to political backlash and the resignation of Foreign Secretary Samuel Hoare.
Italy’s intervention was costly, draining financial and military resources.
Around 70,000 Italian troops were sent.
Heavy spending on arms and supplies worsened economic strains, already high after Abyssinia.
Military weakness exposed by the conflict left Italy unprepared for a major war in 1939.
Mussolini used propaganda to present intervention as a crusade against communism and a fight for Western civilisation.
Fascist media glorified the Corpo Truppe Volontarie (CTV) as heroes and framed the war as evidence of Italy’s strength. This propaganda aimed to increase domestic support and position Italy as a major power internationally.
The Munich Conference (1938) allowed Mussolini to present himself as a mediator who avoided war over the Sudetenland crisis.
British and French leaders praised Mussolini for his “peacekeeping” role, despite Italy having little real influence on German policy. This diplomatic success was short-lived, as Italy became increasingly subordinate to Germany after 1938.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the Stresa Front (1935) and which countries signed it?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying it as an agreement to oppose German violations of the Treaty of Versailles.
1 mark for naming the countries: Britain, France, and Italy.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why Mussolini intervened in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939).
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each reason explained.
Credit the following:
Spread of Fascist ideology (1 mark for identification, 1–2 marks for explanation, e.g., Mussolini wanted to strengthen fascism in Europe by supporting Franco).
Countering communism (1 mark for identification, 1–2 marks for explanation, e.g., Italy opposed the Republican government as it was supported by the USSR and seen as left-wing).
Strategic advantage (credit if explained that Mussolini wanted a friendly regime in Spain to secure influence in the western Mediterranean).
Enhancing prestige and demonstrating power (credit as a developed reason if linked to Mussolini’s foreign policy aims).
Maximum marks awarded for two fully developed reasons.
