OCR Specification focus:
‘election of 1999; political, social and economic conditions in South Africa by 1999’
South Africa’s 1999 general election marked a decisive moment in the country’s democratic consolidation, reflecting political change, persistent social challenges, and evolving economic conditions in the post-apartheid era.
Political Landscape in 1999
The 1999 election was the second democratic national vote after the end of apartheid. It tested the strength of South Africa’s new constitutional order.
Key Political Parties
African National Congress (ANC): Led by Thabo Mbeki, the ANC campaigned on a platform of economic growth, stability, and continued transformation.
Democratic Party (DP): Positioned as the primary liberal opposition, advocating for civil rights and market-friendly policies.
Inkatha Freedom Party (IFP): Maintained a regional Zulu support base, calling for federalism and provincial autonomy.
New National Party (NNP): The successor to the apartheid-era National Party, struggling to redefine itself in the democratic era.
Election Process and Outcome
Conducted under the 1996 Constitution, ensuring universal suffrage and proportional representation.
Voter turnout exceeded 85%, indicating strong public engagement.
Results:
ANC victory with nearly two-thirds of the vote, granting Mbeki the presidency.
The DP became the official opposition, overtaking the NNP.
Smaller parties like the IFP retained regional influence, particularly in KwaZulu-Natal.
Choropleth map of South Africa showing the party that won the largest 1999 National Assembly vote share in each province. Dark green indicates ANC pluralities/majorities; KwaZulu-Natal appears pink for the IFP, and the Western Cape is light green for a non-majority ANC plurality. Source
Significance
The election confirmed:
The ANC’s dominance and legitimacy in post-apartheid politics.
A shift in the opposition, with liberal parties rising as the NNP declined.
The successful transfer of leadership from Nelson Mandela to Thabo Mbeki, demonstrating institutional stability.
Social Conditions by 1999
Despite political transformation, South Africa faced profound social challenges inherited from apartheid.
Persistent Inequalities
Racial inequality remained severe, with the Black majority still experiencing high poverty and unemployment rates.
Urban-rural divides limited access to education, healthcare, and housing.
Public Health Issues
HIV/AIDS epidemic escalated dramatically:
By 1999, approximately 10% of the population was HIV-positive.
Government response under Mbeki became controversial, as he questioned links between HIV and AIDS.
Crime and Security
High levels of violent crime, including murder and robbery, undermined social confidence and deterred investment.
Policing reforms struggled to keep pace with rising criminal activity.
Education and Housing
Efforts to implement the Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP) had delivered new housing projects and improved school access, but the demand far outstripped supply.
Economic Conditions in 1999
The economy showed both progress and structural weaknesses.
Growth and Policy
The government maintained the Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) strategy:
Focused on macroeconomic stability, deficit reduction, and attracting foreign investment.
Delivered moderate GDP growth around 2–3% annually.
Employment
Unemployment remained high, exceeding 25%, reflecting slow job creation and global market pressures.
Foreign Investment and Trade
South Africa’s reintegration into the global economy boosted:
Mining and manufacturing exports.
Foreign direct investment, aided by political stability.
Currency and Inflation
The rand stabilised after volatility in the mid-1990s.
Inflation dropped to single digits, a sign of effective monetary policy.
Key Personalities and Leadership
Thabo Mbeki: Mandela’s successor, emphasised “African Renaissance” ideals, aiming to strengthen continental cooperation and technological advancement.
Nelson Mandela: Though retired, his symbolic influence remained crucial for national unity and international confidence.
Opposition leaders such as Tony Leon (DP) provided sharper parliamentary scrutiny, marking a more competitive political climate.
International Relations
South Africa’s foreign policy focused on:
Building African Union partnerships.
Mediating conflicts in neighbouring states such as Lesotho and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Attracting global investment through trade agreements and diplomacy.
Broader Impact of the 1999 Election
The election represented:
Consolidation of democracy, with peaceful leadership transition.
A maturing political culture where opposition parties gained strength and parliamentary debate intensified.
The challenge of translating political freedom into tangible socio-economic improvement for the majority population.
Factors Strengthening Democracy
Independent Electoral Commission (IEC) ensured free and fair elections.
Robust media and civil society safeguarded transparency.
Continued respect for the constitutional court reinforced the rule of law.
Enduring Challenges
Economic inequality, the HIV/AIDS crisis, and persistent crime highlighted the limits of political change without rapid socio-economic transformation.
FAQ
Mbeki focused on accelerating economic growth through the existing Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) strategy, aiming to reduce the budget deficit and attract foreign investment.
He launched the African Renaissance initiative, promoting African unity, conflict resolution, and technological development.
His government also sought to strengthen public services but often prioritised market confidence and macroeconomic stability over rapid social spending increases.
International monitoring groups, including the Commonwealth Observer Mission and the European Union, reported that the election was free and fair.
They highlighted efficient administration by the Independent Electoral Commission (IEC), transparent counting procedures, and inclusive voter registration.
Minor logistical issues such as long queues and isolated equipment failures were noted but deemed not to have affected the overall outcome.
Key reasons included:
Loss of its traditional white Afrikaner support base, many of whom migrated to other parties like the Democratic Party.
Inability to shed its association with apartheid-era policies, alienating new voters.
Organisational weaknesses and leadership disputes that undermined campaigning and local structures.
The NNP’s identity crisis left it unable to compete with the ANC’s dominance or the DP’s sharper liberal message.
South Africa faced high violent crime rates, particularly in urban centres such as Johannesburg and Cape Town.
Police services were still reforming after apartheid, and there were concerns about election-day intimidation.
The IEC coordinated with police and community groups to maintain order, successfully preventing serious disruptions, though petty crime and sporadic unrest in some townships were reported.
The ANC’s strong mandate empowered Mbeki to pursue an activist continental role.
He intensified involvement in peacekeeping and mediation in conflicts such as those in Lesotho, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of Congo.
South Africa became a key driver of the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and helped lay groundwork for the African Union, aligning foreign policy with the African Renaissance vision.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (3 marks)
Identify three major social or economic challenges facing South Africa by the time of the 1999 general election.
Mark Scheme
Award 1 mark for each accurate challenge identified, up to a maximum of 3 marks.
Acceptable points include:
High unemployment (around or above 25%).
Widespread poverty and racial inequality.
Escalating HIV/AIDS epidemic (approximately 10% of the population HIV-positive).
High levels of violent crime undermining public security.
Inadequate housing and education provision despite RDP efforts.
Answers must specifically reference conditions by 1999.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the outcome of the 1999 general election demonstrated the consolidation of democracy in South Africa.
Mark Scheme
Award up to 6 marks based on the following levels:
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Clear, detailed explanation of at least two well-developed points showing democratic consolidation.
Likely content: peaceful transfer of leadership from Nelson Mandela to Thabo Mbeki; high voter turnout (over 85%); free and fair electoral process overseen by the Independent Electoral Commission; emergence of a more competitive opposition (DP becoming official opposition).
Well-structured and uses precise evidence.
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Some valid explanation with supporting evidence but lacking depth or balance.
May describe democratic features (e.g. universal suffrage, proportional representation) without fully linking to consolidation.
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Basic or generalised statements (e.g. “The ANC won so democracy was stronger”) with little supporting detail.
Award 0 marks for answers that are wholly inaccurate or irrelevant.
