OCR Specification focus:
‘the impact on Anglo-Saxon politics, the economy, culture and society (including religious belief); the significance of the 860s (‘a great heathen army’); the response to raids.’
The Viking raids on England in the late eighth and ninth centuries had transformative effects on Anglo-Saxon politics, economy, culture, and society, fundamentally reshaping England’s historical trajectory.
The Impact on Anglo-Saxon Politics
The Challenge to Kingship
The sudden and destructive nature of Viking raids exposed the weaknesses of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, particularly Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia. Kings struggled to protect monasteries and settlements, undermining royal authority.
Raids destabilised regional power balances.
Some kings were killed or deposed due to military failures.
Reliance on tribute payments, such as Danegeld (money paid to Viking raiders to buy peace), created long-term political strains.
Towards Unity
The raids stimulated the eventual consolidation of power under stronger kings like Alfred the Great of Wessex. By demonstrating the need for unified resistance, Viking attacks became a catalyst for the move towards a single English kingdom.
The Economic Consequences
Disruption of Trade and Wealth
Viking raids targeted centres of wealth such as monasteries and towns. Gold, silver, and livestock were looted, and trade networks disrupted.
Monastic treasuries were plundered, depriving the Church of resources.
Local economies suffered from the destruction of farmland and property.
However, some Viking presence also stimulated new forms of exchange, particularly in areas where raiding and trading overlapped.
Tribute Payments
The practice of paying Danegeld drained Anglo-Saxon treasuries but also encouraged the development of more organised taxation systems. The need to raise large sums in short periods advanced administrative practices in kingdom governance.
Cultural and Religious Effects
Attacks on Monasteries
Monasteries were both wealthy and symbolically important, making them prime Viking targets. The raid on Lindisfarne in 793 is often cited as the beginning of the Viking Age in England.
The surviving ruins of Lindisfarne Priory, emblematic of monastic vulnerability during Viking raids. Though the visible remains date from the 12th century, they stand on the site of the earlier pre-Conquest monastery attacked in 793. Source
Destruction of holy sites shocked Christendom.
Loss of manuscripts and treasures hindered intellectual life.
Some monastic communities fled inland or fortified their sites.
Monastery: A religious community of monks or nuns living under vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, often serving as centres of learning and wealth.
The repeated attacks damaged the religious confidence of the Anglo-Saxons. Some interpreted the raids as divine punishment, influencing sermons and spiritual life.
Cultural Exchange
Despite violence, prolonged contact led to cultural exchange. Norse words, artistic motifs, and place-names entered English usage. In later centuries, the fusion of Norse and Anglo-Saxon traditions became visible in language and law.
Social Consequences
Population Displacement
Raids and settlement caused population movements. People fled vulnerable coastal and riverine areas, reshaping settlement patterns.
Some communities abandoned exposed sites.
Others adapted by building defensive burhs (fortified towns).
Slavery and Captives
Vikings frequently took captives to be sold in slave markets across Europe. This reintroduced large-scale slavery into areas of England where it had been less prominent.
Slave: A person legally owned by another, denied personal freedom, and compelled to perform labour or services without pay.
The reassertion of slavery as a common social reality marked a significant setback for sections of the Anglo-Saxon population.
The Significance of the 860s: The “Great Heathen Army”
Arrival and Scale
In 865, a large Viking coalition known as the Great Heathen Army landed in England.
A map of the Viking Great Army’s campaigns in England between 865 and 878. It illustrates the scale and movement of Viking forces, shifting from raiding to long-term conquest and settlement. Source
Unlike earlier raiding parties, this force aimed at conquest and settlement.
It moved systematically across Northumbria, East Anglia, and Mercia.
Several kingdoms were overthrown, including the martyrdom of King Edmund of East Anglia.
The size and coordination of the army demonstrated a shift from opportunistic raids to long-term colonisation.
Transformation of Strategy
The Great Heathen Army changed the scale of warfare:
Use of fortified winter camps marked a strategic innovation.
Expansion into permanent settlements laid the groundwork for the Danelaw, a distinct Norse-controlled area of England.
The challenge forced Anglo-Saxons into military and political reforms.
Responses to the Raids
Military Reforms
Alfred the Great reorganised military structures to respond more effectively.
Creation of a system of burhs (fortified towns) provided local defence.
A schematic map of burhs from the Burghal Hidage, illustrating the spread of fortified towns across Wessex and its borders. This system, pioneered by Alfred, enabled local defence and rapid response to Viking raids. Source
Development of a navy countered Viking seafaring dominance.
A rotation system ensured a permanent standing army.
Burh: A fortified settlement established by Anglo-Saxon rulers, designed to protect against Viking raids and act as centres of administration.
Religious and Ideological Responses
Church leaders framed the raids as a test of faith, urging moral reform and piety. Saints’ cults, such as that of St Edmund, were promoted to strengthen resistance and morale.
Long-Term Adaptation
Anglo-Saxons did not merely react but adapted. Viking settlement brought new farming methods, trade links, and cultural influences. The raids, while destructive, became part of the foundations of medieval England’s resilience.
FAQ
The attack was unprecedented because monasteries were seen as sacred and usually spared from violence. Lindisfarne housed holy relics and had strong symbolic importance in Christendom.
Contemporaries believed the assault represented divine punishment for sin. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle described it as a fearful portent, linking the raid with omens such as lightning and famine.
Earlier Viking forces were small, mobile bands interested mainly in plunder.
The Great Heathen Army was:
Larger in scale, estimated in the thousands.
Better organised, moving strategically between kingdoms.
Focused on long-term conquest and settlement rather than hit-and-run raids.
This distinction explains why the 860s marked such a turning point.
Edmund’s death in 869 became a powerful religious and cultural symbol. He refused to renounce Christianity, leading to his veneration as a saint.
His cult spread rapidly, strengthening morale and fostering unity in the face of Viking incursions. This helped frame the struggle against the Vikings as not only political but also spiritual.
Destructive raids exposed the vulnerability of existing towns and trading centres.
In response, rulers promoted fortified sites and rebuilt towns as centres of defence and administration.
Wessex in particular developed burhs, which later became key towns.
The need for secure markets encouraged the growth of urban economies, laying groundwork for later medieval urbanisation.
Danegeld was often a pragmatic choice. Many kingdoms lacked the resources to resist large Viking armies militarily.
Paying tribute could:
Buy temporary peace.
Prevent further devastation to crops and monasteries.
Allow rulers time to reorganise or strengthen defences.
However, it set a dangerous precedent, as repeated payments encouraged Vikings to return for more.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Which Anglo-Saxon monastery was famously attacked by the Vikings in 793, often considered the beginning of the Viking Age in England?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying Lindisfarne.
A second mark if the answer specifies that it was attacked in 793.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain two ways in which the arrival of the Great Heathen Army in the 860s changed Anglo-Saxon England.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for the first explained way.
Up to 3 marks for the second explained way.
Maximum of 5 marks overall.
Examples of valid points:
Political impact: several Anglo-Saxon kingdoms (e.g., Northumbria, East Anglia) were overthrown, showing a shift from raids to conquest (2–3 marks if explanation is developed).
Military and strategic impact: Anglo-Saxon rulers, particularly Alfred, developed new defensive measures such as burhs and naval reforms in response to the scale of Viking threat (2–3 marks if explanation is developed).
Religious or cultural impact: martyrdom of King Edmund and destruction of monasteries reinforced the sense of crisis and reshaped Anglo-Saxon religious identity (2–3 marks if explanation is developed).
Partial answers that state a correct point without development: 1–2 marks.
Developed explanation linking cause and effect: 3 marks.
Maximum two explained points credited.
