OCR Specification focus:
‘return of Richard of York; Henry VI’s insanity and the rule of England 1453–1455’
The years 1453 to 1455 marked a turning point in English politics, as Henry VI’s collapse of authority and Richard of York’s ambitions created instability and factional conflict.
The Return of Richard, Duke of York
In 1450, Richard of York had previously been marginalised from power and sent to govern in Ireland. However, by 1453, with growing discontent in England, he returned to assert influence. His re-emergence coincided with mounting failures of royal government and the loss of English territories in France.
York’s Position
Richard of York was the leading male descendant of Edward III after Henry VI and his son, giving him a credible, if contested, dynastic claim.
Arms of Richard, 3rd Duke of York (SVG). The quarterings display York’s Plantagenet and Mortimer inheritances that underpinned his dynastic standing in 1453–1455. The small inescutcheon referencing the Holland claim is additional heraldic detail not required by the syllabus but useful context. Source
His return was partly motivated by a desire to reform the realm, curb corruption, and secure his family’s place within politics.
He positioned himself as a champion of reform and good governance, gaining support from sections of the nobility and commons dissatisfied with the court’s leadership.
The Mental Collapse of Henry VI
In the summer of 1453, King Henry VI suffered a sudden mental breakdown, rendering him incapable of speech or governance.
Portrait of Henry VI (oil on panel, c.1540). Although painted decades after the events, it shows the pious, withdrawn king whose incapacity precipitated the 1453–1455 power struggle. This portrait adds visual context; it does not depict the breakdown itself. Source
Henry VI’s Insanity: The period from 1453 to late 1454 when the king was incapacitated and unable to perform his royal duties, leading to a collapse of authority.
During this time:
The queen, Margaret of Anjou, attempted to assert her authority but lacked formal recognition.
Rival noble factions manoeuvred to control government in the absence of a functioning monarch.
The king’s illness coincided with the loss of Gascony in 1453, intensifying political discontent.
The Struggle for Control: Protectorate of York
By March 1454, the crisis led to the appointment of Richard of York as Protector of the Realm. This formalised his authority as head of government during the king’s incapacity.
York’s Protectorate
York placed his allies into key offices, notably making the Earl of Salisbury Chancellor and strengthening ties with the powerful Neville family.
His authority remained conditional and limited; he governed in the king’s name but faced resistance from rivals, especially the Duke of Somerset, who remained a focal point of hostility.
York’s protectorate provided some stability, but it was fragile and heavily dependent on the king’s continued illness.
Queen Margaret’s Role
Margaret of Anjou, determined to protect her son Edward’s inheritance, emerged as a leading political figure. She:
Gathered support from those loyal to her husband and son.
Resisted York’s dominance, fearing he might seek the throne.
Played a critical role in shaping the factional divisions that would harden into civil war.
Faction: A group of nobles aligned around a political leader or cause, often motivated by self-interest and rivalry.
The King’s Recovery and Renewed Conflict
In late 1454, Henry VI unexpectedly recovered his faculties, resuming royal authority. This dramatically altered the balance of power:
The king restored Somerset and others displaced by York, reversing reforms and alienating Yorkist supporters.
York’s political position weakened, while Margaret continued to build a rival court around her son.
The restoration of royal control deepened mistrust and reawakened factional hostilities.
Rising Tensions 1454–1455
The period after Henry’s recovery saw intensifying conflict between factions:
The Nevilles (supporters of York) clashed with the Percys (aligned with Somerset and Margaret) in violent disputes in the north.
York’s exclusion from power, despite his previous service, fostered resentment.
Both sides began to prepare militarily, anticipating confrontation.
Key Developments
York’s position: Increasingly isolated yet still commanding significant support.
Margaret and Somerset: Consolidating influence around the king and heir.
Factional violence: Breaking out across the kingdom, highlighting the collapse of effective central authority.
Towards the First Battle of St Albans (1455)
By early 1455, mistrust and hostility had reached breaking point. York and his allies believed their survival depended on decisive action. In May 1455:
York and the Nevilles raised forces and marched towards London.
At St Albans, the Yorkists confronted royal forces, killing Somerset and securing temporary control of government.
Map of the First Battle of St Albans (1889, after Ramsay). A clean plan of the town and deployment areas illustrates how Yorkist forces seized the initiative in the streets around the marketplace. As a 19th-century reconstruction, it includes street-name detail beyond the syllabus but remains a clear orientation tool. Source
This battle marked the violent beginning of the Wars of the Roses, a dynastic conflict rooted in the instability of Henry VI’s reign.
Significance
The return of Richard of York exposed the fragility of Henry VI’s rule.
The king’s insanity created conditions for noble rivalry and political breakdown.
The power struggle of 1453–1455 transformed political factionalism into armed conflict, setting the stage for decades of civil war.
FAQ
The Nevilles, particularly Richard Neville, Earl of Salisbury, and his son the Earl of Warwick, provided York with powerful allies.
Their wealth, extensive estates in the north, and rivalry with the Percy family meant they could supply military strength and political backing. This alliance gave York the necessary support to challenge Somerset and Margaret of Anjou’s influence.
Without Neville support, York’s protectorate and later armed resistance at St Albans would have been far weaker.
Margaret positioned herself as guardian of the Prince of Wales, Edward.
She cultivated loyal factions around her, especially Somerset and the Percys.
She resisted York’s dominance, fearing he would replace Edward as heir.
She promoted her own role in government despite lacking formal recognition.
Her efforts created a rival court and contributed to factional divisions that escalated to armed conflict in 1455.
The fall of Gascony to the French was a severe blow to English prestige.
It coincided with Henry VI’s breakdown, compounding perceptions of weak leadership. Losses abroad intensified criticism of Somerset, who was blamed for military failures.
This made York’s return more appealing to disaffected nobles and commons who wanted stronger leadership, linking foreign failure directly to political upheaval at home.
The feud reflected wider factional splits.
The Nevilles supported York.
The Percys supported Somerset and Margaret.
Violence between these families in the north destabilised royal authority and normalised armed conflict. Their private war spilled into national politics, making compromise between factions almost impossible.
Unlike later large-scale field battles, St Albans was fought in a town’s narrow streets.
Yorkist forces exploited this setting to break through weak points in the Lancastrian defences. Casualties were relatively small, but politically decisive: Somerset was killed, and York regained influence.
The urban nature of the battle highlighted the improvisational character of the conflict at this early stage.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Henry VI suffer a mental breakdown that left him unable to govern?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying the year 1453.
No credit for incorrect years, even if contextually plausible.
Maximum 2 marks available (1 mark for correct year, 1 mark for accuracy and precision in phrasing).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain why the recovery of Henry VI in late 1454 increased political tensions in England.
Mark scheme:
Up to 2 marks for description: candidates may describe Henry’s resumption of power.
• e.g. “Henry VI recovered his faculties and resumed control of government.” (1–2 marks)Up to 2 marks for identifying consequences: candidates may identify how this affected key figures.
• e.g. “Somerset was restored to power, undoing York’s reforms.” (1–2 marks)Up to 2 marks for explanation: candidates must link Henry’s recovery to factional tensions.
• e.g. “Henry’s restoration alienated York and the Nevilles, as their authority under the Protectorate was stripped away, intensifying rivalry.” (1–2 marks)
Indicative content (not exhaustive):
Henry VI’s recovery ended York’s Protectorate.
Restoration of Somerset and removal of Yorkist allies from office.
Renewed influence of Margaret of Anjou and her support for her son.
Factional hostilities sharpened, leading to open conflict in 1455.
Level guidance:
1–2 marks: simple or partial description with limited explanation.
3–4 marks: clear description and some explanation of consequences.
5–6 marks: developed explanation showing clear links between Henry’s recovery and the escalation of political conflict.
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