OCR Specification focus:
‘the role of Duke Robert; the issue of homage, the issue of free elections, reforms under Anselm; Henry I and the Papacy..’
Henry I’s reign was marked by complex international diplomacy. Balancing relations with Normandy, the Papacy, and neighbouring rulers, Henry strengthened his authority while navigating disputes of homage, elections, and reform.
Relations with Duke Robert
Henry I’s relationship with Duke Robert Curthose of Normandy was central to his foreign policy. Robert, the elder brother of Henry, had a claim to the English throne following William II’s death in 1100. Initially, Robert’s position was strengthened by support from discontented barons in England.
In 1101, Robert attempted to invade England but was forced into the Treaty of Alton, recognising Henry as king in return for an annual pension.
However, tensions continued, as Robert’s weak rule in Normandy undermined stability.
In 1106, Henry invaded Normandy and secured a decisive victory at the Battle of Tinchebray, capturing Robert and imprisoning him for life.
This victory gave Henry control over both England and Normandy, vastly enhancing his international standing.
Henry’s successful suppression of Robert eliminated a major rival and consolidated cross-Channel possessions under his rule.
In September 1106 Henry I defeated Duke Robert Curthose at Tinchebray, capturing him and bringing Normandy under English control.
Map of southern England and western France after Tinchebray (1106). Shaded areas indicate Henry I’s domains, including Normandy, set against the Capetian royal domain. Minor cartographic details beyond the syllabus are present but unobtrusive. Source
The Issue of Homage
Henry’s control of both England and Normandy brought him into direct conflict with the King of France, as Normandy was technically a French fief.
Homage: A feudal ceremony in which a vassal pledged loyalty and service to a lord in return for land or protection.
Henry owed homage to King Louis VI of France for Normandy, but his authority as a monarch complicated this relationship.
Louis sought to exploit Robert’s son, William Clito, as a rival claimant to Normandy, challenging Henry’s power.
Homage became a recurring point of tension, with Henry reluctant to appear subordinate to the French king, yet compelled to recognise feudal obligations.
By maintaining Normandy militarily and diplomatically, Henry ensured that homage did not undermine his authority.
This balancing act highlighted the fragile interplay between feudal custom and royal sovereignty.
As Duke of Normandy, Henry acknowledged the Capetian king’s overlordship by performing homage, even as he guarded ducal autonomy.
Illumination of a vassal performing homage to his lord—hands joined in the in manus gesture and lord seated to receive the oath. Use to illustrate the legal-ritual form of feudal subordination relevant to Henry I’s position in France. Extra detail: the figures are later monarchs (Edward I and Philip IV), but the ritual itself is consistent with earlier custom. Source
The Issue of Free Elections
A significant area of conflict in Henry’s reign concerned the right of free elections within the Church. The Papacy sought to prevent kings from interfering in the appointment of bishops and abbots, part of the broader Gregorian Reform movement.
Traditionally, Anglo-Norman kings had heavily influenced Church appointments, ensuring loyal clerics filled senior posts.
Pope Paschal II insisted on free elections, where Churchmen, not kings, chose candidates.
Henry initially resisted, as appointments provided vital patronage and royal control over ecclesiastical wealth.
The dispute reached a settlement in 1107: Henry relinquished the right to invest bishops with ring and staff (symbols of office), but retained the right to require homage for their temporal lands.
This compromise upheld royal influence in practice while formally acknowledging Papal reform principles.
The Concordat of London (1107), brokered with Anselm, ended the English investiture dispute by separating spiritual from temporal investiture.
Woodcut of a king investing a bishop with the ring and staff, the traditional symbols of spiritual office. Use it to clarify what Henry I agreed to relinquish (spiritual investiture) while retaining influence over temporalities and homage. The image is generic (not of Henry I) but accurately illustrates the ritual at issue. Source
Reforms under Anselm
The role of Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury was pivotal in reshaping Henry’s relations with the Church.
Gregorian Reform: A series of 11th- and 12th-century Papal initiatives seeking to free the Church from secular control, particularly in appointments and clerical discipline.
Anselm, a staunch supporter of reform, clashed with Henry over investiture and obedience to Rome.
His exile from England (1103–1107) mirrored wider disputes across Europe over secular authority in ecclesiastical matters.
The eventual compromise in 1107, known as the Concordat of London, reflected Anselm’s influence in bringing Henry into alignment with Papal policy while safeguarding royal power.
Anselm also promoted higher standards of clerical life and discipline, in keeping with reformist ideals.
Thus, Anselm’s reforms both constrained and legitimised Henry’s authority, embedding reform within English Church governance.
Henry I and the Papacy
Henry’s relationship with the Papacy was shaped by mutual need and ongoing negotiation.
The Papacy recognised Henry’s rule, crucial for consolidating legitimacy after his usurpation in 1100.
In return, Henry had to acknowledge Papal authority in spiritual matters, particularly in the question of investiture.
His concessions in 1107 ensured continued Papal support while preventing Rome from eroding his practical control of the Church’s wealth and lands.
Later in his reign, Henry maintained cordial relations with successive Popes, positioning himself as both a reform-compliant monarch and a strong defender of royal rights.
This balance was vital in maintaining both internal stability and international respect.
Broader Diplomatic Context
Beyond Robert, homage, and Papal disputes, Henry engaged actively in broader diplomacy.
He strengthened alliances through the marriage of his daughter, Matilda, to the Holy Roman Emperor, expanding England’s influence.
He intervened militarily in Normandy against threats from Louis VI and William Clito, demonstrating his commitment to defending continental possessions.
By the 1120s, Henry’s court was a centre of diplomacy, balancing power between France, the Papacy, and the Empire.
His ability to secure alliances and suppress rivals underpinned his long and stable reign.
Significance of Henry’s Diplomacy
Henry I’s international relations and diplomacy shaped the political framework of his reign.
By capturing Duke Robert, he eliminated dynastic rivalry and united Anglo-Norman rule.
Through negotiations over homage, he resisted French dominance while preserving Normandy.
By compromising over free elections, he adapted to Papal reform without losing authority.
His dealings with Anselm demonstrated his skill in turning potential conflict into long-term stability.
Henry’s reign illustrates how international diplomacy, feudal obligations, and Papal reform intersected, defining the balance between secular monarchy and ecclesiastical power in the early 12th century.
FAQ
William Clito, son of Duke Robert, became a rallying point for opposition to Henry I’s rule. King Louis VI of France and other continental powers promoted him as a rival Duke of Normandy.
Henry I’s diplomacy was shaped by the need to neutralise William Clito’s claim, involving both military campaigns and marriage negotiations. Clito’s presence kept the Anglo-French relationship tense throughout Henry’s reign.
Henry married his daughter, Matilda, to the Holy Roman Emperor Henry V in 1114. This alliance expanded England’s influence into the Empire, creating a counterbalance against France.
Later, Henry arranged Matilda’s second marriage to Geoffrey of Anjou, aiming to secure Normandy’s southern border. These marriages were central to Henry’s diplomatic strategy.
Papal legates acted as representatives of Rome in England. They mediated disputes, oversaw ecclesiastical reforms, and ensured compliance with Papal policy.
Their presence allowed the Papacy to monitor Henry I’s concessions, but Henry carefully managed legates to prevent excessive interference. This reflected his diplomatic skill in balancing papal authority with royal independence.
The Battle of Brémule saw Henry I’s forces defeat King Louis VI of France and William Clito.
Victory reinforced Henry’s control of Normandy.
It weakened French attempts to use William Clito as a rival claimant.
Diplomatically, it confirmed Henry as a formidable ruler able to defend his continental possessions.
This triumph gave Henry greater leverage in negotiations with France.
The Concordat of London settled the investiture dispute in England, but it also resonated abroad.
It demonstrated that a practical compromise between Papal reform and royal authority was possible, influencing similar disputes in continental Europe.
Henry’s willingness to concede spiritual investiture while retaining secular control enhanced his international reputation as a pragmatic and stable ruler.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two issues in Henry I’s reign that brought him into conflict with the Papacy.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correctly identified issue, up to 2 marks.
Acceptable answers include:The issue of free elections in the Church.
The question of lay investiture (ring and staff).
Disputes with Archbishop Anselm over reforms.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Henry I’s relationship with Duke Robert affected his international diplomacy.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Simple or general answer with limited detail, e.g. “Henry fought Robert.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some accurate knowledge, shows understanding of how the conflict influenced Henry’s diplomacy. For example, reference to the Treaty of Alton (1101) and its effect on Henry’s position.
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Detailed explanation of the significance of the relationship. For example: Henry’s capture of Robert at Tinchebray (1106), uniting England and Normandy under his rule; how this strengthened Henry’s position against King Louis VI of France; and how it shaped his obligations of homage while bolstering his international authority.
Award top marks for well-supported answers linking Robert’s defeat and imprisonment to Henry’s wider diplomatic successes.
