OCR Specification focus:
‘Stephen's relationship with the barons, the power and loyalty of the barons and earls, baronial coinage; the functioning of central government, the exchequer, coinage; changing relations with the Papacy.’
The Civil War of 1139–1154 was a defining crisis for Anglo-Norman England, marked by shifting allegiances, contested authority, and fragile diplomacy. International relations and domestic politics were deeply intertwined, particularly through Stephen’s dealings with the Papacy, the barons, and questions of governmental legitimacy.
Stephen’s Relationship with the Barons
The loyalty of the barons and earls was central to Stephen’s ability to maintain power. Unlike the strong monarchies of William I and Henry I, Stephen relied heavily on aristocratic support.
Many barons sought greater autonomy, exploiting the weakened crown during the civil conflict.
Baronial loyalty was often conditional, shifting between Stephen and Matilda according to military strength and personal advantage.
Their private armies and fortified castles gave barons significant bargaining power, enabling them to defy royal authority.
Baronial Coinage: The practice of nobles minting their own money during Stephen’s reign, symbolising both independence and a breakdown of royal control.
This development highlights the erosion of centralised authority, as barons asserted fiscal as well as military independence.
Power and Loyalty of the Earls
The earls held strategic importance, both territorially and politically:
Some earls supported Stephen for rewards in land or titles.
Others shifted to Matilda, undermining Stephen’s credibility.
This volatile support base meant diplomacy and negotiation were as vital as military strategy.
Baronial Coinage and Its Implications
The issue of baronial coinage illustrated Stephen’s weakness in governance:
Traditionally, the Crown monopolised the minting of coinage through the royal exchequer.
During the war, barons minted their own, reducing trust in the royal currency.
Obverse and reverse of a 12th-century silver penny of King Stephen. Use it to discuss royal control of minting and the symbolism of kingship on currency. Note: this is royal, not baronial, coinage; it illustrates the standard to which baronial issues were an illicit alternative. Source
Coinage fragmentation damaged economic stability and demonstrated the decentralisation of royal authority.
Exchequer: The financial department of medieval government, responsible for collecting royal revenue and overseeing accounts.
By losing grip over coinage, Stephen compromised one of the central functions of medieval kingship: the guarantee of stable money.
The Functioning of Central Government
The central government under Stephen faltered due to civil war pressures:
The exchequer functioned irregularly, undermining tax collection.
Judicial authority weakened, with barons administering justice in their localities.
Administration became fragmented, with diminished oversight from the royal chancery and justiciar.
The disruption of these institutions was significant because stability of central governance was a key marker of Angevin and Norman kingship.
Changing Relations with the Papacy
Diplomacy with the Papacy was crucial during Stephen’s contested reign. Both Stephen and Empress Matilda sought papal approval to legitimise their claims.
Stephen secured papal recognition early in his reign, strengthening his initial position against Matilda.
Papal bull of Innocent II (1130–1143) showing a charter with an attached lead seal (bulla). Such documents conveyed papal authority in ecclesiastical–political affairs and were central to questions of royal legitimacy. This specimen is not Stephen-specific but accurately represents the form used to grant and confirm papal privileges. Source
However, his later disputes with the Church — particularly over appointments and privileges — strained relations.
The Papacy’s involvement acted as a counterbalance to royal authority, forcing Stephen to concede ground in matters of ecclesiastical independence.
Papal Reform Movement: A series of reforms initiated in the 11th and 12th centuries to free the Church from secular control and emphasise papal authority.
The Papacy’s leverage in England reflected broader European trends where monarchs faced increased pressure to respect ecclesiastical independence.
Papal Influence on the Civil War
The Papacy influenced the conflict through its ability to grant or withhold recognition:
Legitimisation of Stephen weakened as papal neutrality shifted with political circumstances.
Papal envoys played a role in negotiating truces and settlements.
The ultimate compromise of 1153, leading to Henry of Anjou’s succession, was facilitated by ecclesiastical diplomacy.
The Interplay Between Domestic Politics and International Diplomacy
The Civil War blurred the lines between domestic rebellion and international diplomacy:
The support of barons and earls had international implications, as cross-Channel territories in Normandy linked England to continental politics.
Papal diplomacy reinforced the idea that kingship was not purely hereditary but subject to external ecclesiastical approval.
The baronial coinage issue highlighted both internal disunity and the weakening of England’s credibility abroad.
Key Features to Remember
Stephen’s reliance on baronial support led to fluctuating loyalty and weakened royal control.
Baronial coinage symbolised a collapse of central fiscal authority.
The exchequer and other governmental structures functioned only partially during the war.
Relations with the Papacy were a vital diplomatic dimension, influencing legitimacy and outcomes.
These aspects show how international diplomacy, domestic governance, and baronial power combined to shape the course of the Civil War and Stephen’s troubled reign.
FAQ
Baronial coinage led to regional inconsistencies in currency value, undermining confidence in monetary transactions.
Merchants struggled to exchange goods when coins from different barons were of uncertain weight or silver content.
This encouraged barter in some areas and discouraged long-distance trade, reducing economic stability and weakening ties between England and continental markets.
Stephen moved quickly to secure papal recognition after Henry I’s death, appealing to the Papacy’s interest in maintaining political stability.
He offered concessions to the Church, such as confirming ecclesiastical rights and respecting canon law in appointments.
Matilda’s claim was less immediate and her alliance with her Angevin husband, Geoffrey of Anjou, was viewed cautiously by Rome due to political tensions in France.
Papal legates acted as neutral mediators, aiming to reduce bloodshed and preserve the Church’s authority during the conflict.
They facilitated negotiations between Stephen and Matilda’s supporters.
They sought to protect ecclesiastical property from plunder.
Their presence reinforced the Papacy’s role as a decisive international arbiter.
Though their interventions were not always successful, they emphasised that legitimacy in England was tied to papal involvement.
Granting increased autonomy to barons undermined Stephen’s central authority, making him appear weaker to papal observers.
The Papacy preferred kings who could guarantee order and enforce ecclesiastical privileges. By empowering local magnates, Stephen unintentionally showed that he could not provide the stability the Papacy valued.
This contributed to Rome’s willingness to reconsider support and later entertain negotiations that favoured the Angevin succession.
European rulers watched England’s instability with interest, particularly the Capetian monarchy in France and the German emperors.
The Papacy, aware of these dynamics, weighed its decisions in light of broader continental politics. Supporting Stephen helped contain Angevin influence in Normandy, but ongoing disorder made papal backing risky.
Thus, papal diplomacy was shaped not only by events in England but by the need to balance power across Christendom.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
What was baronial coinage during the reign of Stephen and why was it significant?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying that baronial coinage was money minted by nobles/barons independently of the Crown.
1 mark for explaining its significance as evidence of weakened royal authority and loss of central control over finance.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Stephen’s relationship with the Papacy affected his ability to maintain authority during the Civil War (1139–1154).
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying that Stephen initially gained papal recognition, strengthening his claim.
1 mark for noting papal authority was essential for legitimising kingship in this period.
1 mark for explaining that disputes with the Church (appointments/privileges) weakened his relationship with the Papacy.
1 mark for describing how papal envoys influenced truces or settlements.
1 mark for linking papal involvement to the eventual compromise of 1153 and Henry of Anjou’s succession.
1 mark for overall explanation that changing relations with the Papacy undermined consistent royal authority.
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