OCR Specification focus:
‘Westphalia (1648), the Pyrenees (1659) and Utrecht (1713) marked turning points in France’s ascendancy.’
France’s rise to great power status in the seventeenth century was punctuated by major diplomatic treaties. These agreements defined borders, rebalanced rivalries, and reconfigured Europe’s political landscape.
The Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
Context
The Treaty of Westphalia ended the Thirty Years’ War, a devastating European conflict that combined religious, dynastic, and territorial disputes. France had entered the war in 1635 under Cardinal Richelieu, seeking to weaken the Habsburgs.
Key Provisions
Recognition of the independence of the Dutch Republic and the Swiss Confederation.
France gained territories in Alsace and rights in the Holy Roman Empire.
Map of Europe after the Peace of Westphalia (1648), highlighting the fragmentation of the Holy Roman Empire and France’s strengthened position along the Rhine. The cartography visualises state boundaries and principal territories affected by the settlement. Labels are concise and suitable for OCR A-Level study; minor additional context beyond France is included to show the system-wide impact. Source
The Habsburgs’ authority over the German princes was weakened, bolstering French influence.
Balance of Power: A principle in international relations where no single state is allowed to dominate, ensuring stability through shifting alliances.
Significance for France
The treaty was a diplomatic success:
Enhanced international prestige, establishing France as a defender of Catholic and Protestant states alike.
Expanded territorial influence along the Rhine frontier.
Provided a platform for France to emerge as the arbiter of European politics.
The Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659)
Context
The Franco-Spanish War (1635–1659) continued even after Westphalia. It drained resources, but France, under Mazarin, pushed for a decisive settlement against weakened Spain.
Key Provisions
France secured Roussillon and parts of Artois.
Historical map of the Treaty of the Pyrenees (1659) with a simple legend (red = to France), allowing students to visualise the new Franco-Spanish frontier at the Pyrenees. The layout is uncluttered and labels key cessions with minimal annotation. Note: the page also references the Peace of Roeskilde-Oliva in Scandinavia; that extra legend entry is present but not required by this syllabus focus. Source
A dynastic marriage was arranged: Louis XIV married Maria Theresa of Spain in 1660, linking the Bourbon and Habsburg dynasties.
Spain acknowledged French supremacy in Europe.
Significance for France
Marked the decline of Spanish hegemony and the ascendancy of France.
Established France as the strongest military power on the continent.
Reinforced absolutist legitimacy for Louis XIV by presenting territorial gains as dynastic triumphs.
Dynastic Marriage: A political union between ruling families designed to secure alliances, claims, or peace treaties.
The Treaty of Utrecht (1713)
Context
The War of the Spanish Succession (1701–1714) tested France’s capacity for prolonged conflict. Louis XIV sought to place his grandson, Philip of Anjou, on the Spanish throne. European powers, fearing Bourbon dominance, opposed him.
Key Provisions
Philip was recognised as King Philip V of Spain, but renounced claims to the French throne to prevent a Franco-Spanish union.
France ceded territories, including Newfoundland, Hudson Bay, and Acadia to Britain.
Britain gained Gibraltar and Minorca, enhancing its naval position.
Western Europe following the Treaties of Utrecht (1713) and Rastatt, indicating the redistribution that curtailed Bourbon overreach while preserving Philip V in Spain. The map’s legend and colour blocks keep the visual simple and readable for exam preparation. Minor additional labels (e.g., Austrian or Savoyard gains) appear to contextualise the balance-of-power outcome. Source
Austria and other allies received significant territorial compensations in Italy and the Low Countries.
Significance for France
Ended the immediate threat of Bourbon universal monarchy.
Although France retained influence in Spain, the concessions represented a strategic retreat.
Highlighted the financial exhaustion and domestic strain of decades of warfare.
Comparative Turning Points
Westphalia (1648)
France transitioned from participant in continental war to leading mediator.
Secured international recognition and credibility in diplomacy.
Pyrenees (1659)
Represented the apex of French ascendancy over Spain.
Cemented Louis XIV’s personal monarchy with an image of strength.
Utrecht (1713)
Symbolised the limits of absolutist expansion.
Shifted momentum towards Britain’s naval and colonial rise, challenging French supremacy.
Wider European Implications
Balance of Power
Each treaty reflected attempts to stabilise Europe while curbing dominance.
Westphalia entrenched state sovereignty within the Holy Roman Empire.
Utrecht demonstrated Europe’s collective will to restrain Bourbon power.
Prestige and Reputation
Versailles diplomacy and military campaigns intertwined with these treaties.
The image of France as the “arbiter of Europe” was strongest after 1648 and 1659.
By 1713, France was still influential but facing diminished prestige.
Fiscal and Military Strain
Prolonged wars to secure treaties drained resources.
By Utrecht, taxation, debt, and famine weakened the monarchy, revealing the burdens of maintaining European dominance.
Processes of Change
1648 (Westphalia): Expansion through diplomacy, positioning France as a key power.
1659 (Pyrenees): Victory through war, diminishing Spain and elevating Louis XIV.
1713 (Utrecht): Retreat and compromise, reflecting overextension and the shift towards balance-of-power politics.
Key Themes for Study
Absolutism and image-making: Each treaty reinforced or undermined royal authority.
International prestige: Diplomacy, war, and dynastic marriage shaped France’s standing.
Shifting ascendancy: Treaties marked transitions from rise (Westphalia), dominance (Pyrenees), to limits (Utrecht).
FAQ
The Treaty of Westphalia confirmed the independence of over 300 German states, weakening imperial cohesion. This decentralisation benefited France by curbing Habsburg power.
It also marked the decline of religious conflict in Europe by recognising Calvinism alongside Catholicism and Lutheranism, reducing the ideological authority of the Emperor.
The treaty included the marriage of Louis XIV to Maria Theresa, daughter of Philip IV of Spain.
This marriage not only secured peace but provided the French monarchy with a potential claim to the Spanish throne. That claim later influenced the outbreak of the War of the Spanish Succession.
Britain acted as a principal negotiator, determined to check Bourbon power.
It secured extensive colonial and naval gains, including Gibraltar and Newfoundland, which established its long-term global maritime supremacy.
Britain’s role showed the growing importance of balancing continental diplomacy with overseas empire-building.
The Pyrenees treaty established the Pyrenees mountains as a clearer border between the two kingdoms.
France absorbed Roussillon, shifting the balance southwards, and also consolidated control in the Spanish Netherlands by taking parts of Artois.
These changes provided greater security to France’s frontiers, which became a recurring strategic aim under Louis XIV.
The treaty redistributed territories to multiple states to prevent Bourbon dominance.
Britain gained Mediterranean and colonial holdings.
Austria took Spanish Netherlands and Italian possessions.
Savoy received Sicily and parts of Milan.
This redistribution ensured no single power could dominate Europe, a deliberate attempt to stabilise the continent after a decade of war.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year was the Treaty of the Pyrenees signed, and which two territories did France gain as part of the settlement?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying the year as 1659.
1 mark for correctly naming both Roussillon and parts of Artois as the territories gained.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the Treaty of Utrecht (1713) limited France’s ascendancy in Europe.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 6 marks. Credit the following points of knowledge and explanation:
1 mark for recognising that Philip V of Spain renounced claims to the French throne, preventing a Bourbon union (basic knowledge).
1 mark for explaining that this prevented the creation of a universal Bourbon monarchy in Europe (explanation).
1 mark for noting that France had to cede overseas territories to Britain (e.g. Newfoundland, Hudson Bay, Acadia) (knowledge).
1 mark for explaining how this enhanced Britain’s naval and colonial position, undermining France’s influence (explanation).
1 mark for identifying that Britain gained Gibraltar and Minorca (knowledge).
1 mark for explaining that these conquests gave Britain a strategic advantage in the Mediterranean, curbing French power (explanation).
Responses that use accurate knowledge but fail to explain significance should be capped at 3 marks. Full marks require both knowledge and explanation across at least two distinct points.
