52.7.2 Tactics, Strategy and Total War (1914–1918)

OCR Specification focus:
‘Trench warfare, attrition and Total War reshaped aims and methods, 1914–1918.’

The First World War revolutionised tactics, strategy and the concept of Total War, transforming military aims, operational methods and the relationship between the state, society and conflict.

The Nature of Strategy and Campaign Aims

Strategic Objectives and Stalemate

The outbreak of the First World War in 1914 marked a shift from short, decisive campaigns to protracted, attritional conflict. Initial plans, such as Germany’s Schlieffen Plan and France’s Plan XVII, aimed for rapid victory through decisive battles. However, the failure of these offensives, notably at the First Battle of the Marne (1914), led to stalemate on the Western Front. Strategic aims shifted from manoeuvre warfare to the gradual wearing down of the enemy’s manpower and resources.

Attrition strategy: A military strategy focused on exhausting the enemy’s strength through sustained losses rather than decisive battles.
Attritional warfare became the dominant strategic approach, as exemplified by the Battle of Verdun (1916) and the Somme (1916), where both sides aimed to inflict maximum casualties.

Expansion of Strategic Scope

As the war progressed, strategy extended beyond battlefield considerations. The conflict became a global struggle, involving colonial resources and theatres beyond Europe. Strategic bombing, economic blockades, and diplomatic alliances became key components of war aims. Britain’s naval blockade of Germany aimed to cripple its economy, while the entry of the United States (1917) shifted the strategic balance by adding industrial and manpower strength to the Allies.

Tactics and the Evolution of the Battlefield

The Emergence of Trench Warfare

The static nature of the Western Front defined the tactics of the First World War. Both sides constructed extensive networks of trenches, stretching from the North Sea to the Swiss frontier.

Instruction diagram of a British revetted fire-trench (1914), with labelled bays and traverses designed to limit blast and enfilade fire. The layout clarifies how trench form followed function in static, defensive warfare. As a primary-source schematic, it matches the level of tactical detail required for OCR. Source

Trench warfare: A form of land warfare characterised by opposing armed forces attacking, counterattacking, and defending from systems of trenches dug into the ground.

Trench systems included front-line, support, and reserve trenches, connected by communication trenches. They provided protection from artillery and machine-gun fire but created a defensive deadlock. This forced commanders to devise new tactics to break through entrenched positions.

The ‘Cult of the Offensive’ and Early Failures

At the war’s outset, military doctrine remained rooted in pre-war belief in the ‘cult of the offensive’—the idea that attacking spirit could overcome defensive positions. This doctrine led to catastrophic losses during early offensives, such as the Battle of the Frontiers (1914) and the First Battle of Ypres (1914). Infantry assaults against entrenched machine guns and artillery resulted in mass casualties with minimal gains.

Tactical Innovation and Combined Arms

The deadlock prompted innovation in tactics and weaponry. New approaches aimed to coordinate artillery, infantry, tanks, and aircraft into combined arms operations to achieve breakthroughs.

Creeping barrage: Artillery fire advanced in stages ahead of infantry to suppress enemy defenders.

Barrage map for the Second Battle of Passchendaele (6 November 1917) showing the creeping barrage pattern (blue) stepping ahead of the infantry while German trench lines are overprinted. This concretely demonstrates how artillery, timing, and infantry coordination underpinned late-war combined-arms assaults. The map includes precise tactical overlays directly aligned with the syllabus focus on tactics. Source

Infiltration tactics: Pioneered by German stormtroopers in 1918, these small, flexible units bypassed strongpoints to disrupt rear areas.
Tanks, first deployed at the Battle of the Somme (1916), offered mobile firepower capable of crossing trenches and barbed wire.
Aircraft reconnaissance improved artillery accuracy and provided real-time intelligence.

Despite early limitations, these developments laid the foundations for modern combined-arms warfare. The Battle of Cambrai (1917) demonstrated the potential of coordinated tank and infantry assaults.

Total War and the Transformation of Warfare

Concept and Implications

The First World War is often cited as the first true Total War due to the mobilisation of entire societies and economies for the war effort.

Total War: A form of warfare in which a nation mobilises all available resources—human, economic, industrial, and cultural—to achieve victory, blurring the distinction between military and civilian spheres.

Unlike previous conflicts, the war demanded sustained industrial output, mass conscription, and societal participation. Governments assumed unprecedented control over economies, labour, and production. In Britain, the Ministry of Munitions (1915) coordinated industrial output, while conscription (from 1916) ensured a continuous supply of manpower.

Civilian Involvement and the Home Front

Total War reshaped the relationship between civilians and the battlefield. Civilian populations became targets and participants:

Strategic bombing by German Zeppelins and Gotha bombers targeted British cities, introducing civilians to direct warfare.
The Royal Navy blockade caused widespread food shortages in Germany, undermining civilian morale.
Women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers, taking on roles in munitions factories, agriculture, and transport.

Public opinion and morale became crucial strategic concerns. Governments used propaganda to maintain support and justify sacrifices, while censorship limited dissent and protected morale.

Economic Warfare and Resource Mobilisation

Sustaining prolonged industrial conflict required vast resource mobilisation. States redirected economies towards war production, prioritising weapons, ammunition, and supplies over consumer goods. Mass production techniques, such as those pioneered in American industry, were adapted for munitions manufacturing. Economic warfare became a strategic tool: Britain’s blockade of Germany aimed to starve its industry, while Germany’s U-boat campaign sought to cut Allied supply lines.

Official Royal Navy map (19 August 1918) showing the minefield barriers around the British Isles integral to anti-submarine and blockade strategy. It visualises the maritime dimension of Total War, connecting policy, strategy, and resource denial. The map includes operational detail beyond the Western Front, which is helpful context for understanding the blockade’s reach. Source

Strategic Adaptation and the War’s Conclusion

From Attrition to Breakthrough

By 1918, tactical and strategic thinking had evolved significantly. Allied forces, under the unified command of Ferdinand Foch, integrated artillery, tanks, infantry, and aircraft into coordinated offensives. The Hundred Days Offensive (August–November 1918) demonstrated the effectiveness of modern combined arms and flexible tactics. German forces, exhausted by attrition and weakened by the failure of the Spring Offensive (1918), could no longer resist the sustained Allied advance.

Legacy of Strategic and Tactical Change

The First World War marked a turning point in the history of warfare. It demonstrated the limitations of pre-industrial doctrines and the necessity of integrating new technologies and strategies. It also illustrated the profound impact of Total War, where entire nations—not just armies—were mobilised for conflict. The lessons of trench warfare, attrition, and industrial mobilisation profoundly influenced military thought and planning in the interwar years and beyond.

FAQ

Early trenches were shallow and hastily dug, offering minimal protection. As the war progressed, they became more sophisticated, featuring multiple defensive layers and improved facilities.

Zig-zag patterns reduced blast effects and stopped enemy fire from sweeping through.
Dugouts and bunkers offered shelter from artillery and space for command posts.
Communication trenches allowed safer troop and supply movement between lines.

These adaptations improved defensive resilience and allowed armies to sustain prolonged occupation under heavy bombardment.

Cavalry units were rendered ineffective by new battlefield conditions. The dominance of machine guns, barbed wire, and artillery meant open manoeuvre warfare was nearly impossible.

Horses struggled in muddy, cratered terrain, and mounted charges suffered heavy casualties against entrenched positions. Cavalry roles shifted to reconnaissance and communication behind the lines, while tanks and armoured vehicles replaced them in breakthrough operations, reflecting the shift towards industrialised, mechanised warfare.

Heavy rain, mud, and waterlogged ground were constant challenges, especially in Flanders and northern France. These conditions slowed offensives, bogged down vehicles and artillery, and made troop movement difficult.

Operations were often delayed or failed due to impassable terrain, as seen in the Battle of Passchendaele (1917).
Strategies had to account for seasonal conditions, with offensives planned for drier months.
Engineers constructed duckboards, drainage systems, and roads to improve movement and supply, showing how terrain dictated tactical feasibility.

Deception was vital for breaking the deadlock. Armies used various ruses to mislead the enemy about the timing and location of attacks.

Dummy trenches and artillery drew enemy fire away from real positions.
Feint attacks and limited offensives diverted reserves, as seen in diversions before major battles like the Somme.
False radio messages and reconnaissance flights created confusion about operational plans.

These tactics aimed to achieve surprise, disrupt enemy responses, and increase the chances of breakthrough in a highly static war.

Logistics underpinned every major campaign. The sheer scale of trench warfare demanded continuous supplies of ammunition, food, and equipment.

Railways became crucial for moving troops and materials quickly to the front.
Motor transport improved supply speed but required fuel and maintenance infrastructure.
Interruptions to supply lines could halt offensives or force withdrawals, as seen with German shortages during the 1918 Spring Offensive.

Strategic planning increasingly focused on sustaining logistics over time, highlighting the interconnectedness of industrial capacity and battlefield success.

Practice Questions

Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two tactical innovations used on the Western Front during the First World War to break the stalemate of trench warfare.

Mark scheme:

Award 1 mark for each correctly identified tactical innovation.
Accept any two of the following (or other relevant examples):
- Creeping barrage (1)
- Infiltration tactics / stormtrooper tactics (1)
- Use of tanks to cross trenches and barbed wire (1)
- Coordinated combined arms (artillery, infantry, tanks, aircraft) (1)

Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how the concept of Total War changed the nature of strategy and warfare on the Western Front during the First World War.