OCR Specification focus:
‘Sinn Féin led opposition through the Easter Rising (1916) and the Anglo-Irish War (1919–1921).’
From the Easter Rising of 1916 to the Anglo-Irish War of 1919–1921, Irish nationalism transformed from a minority movement into a mass campaign that reshaped Ireland’s relationship with Britain.
The Rise of Sinn Féin and Revolutionary Nationalism
Origins and Ideology of Sinn Féin
Founded in 1905 by Arthur Griffith, Sinn Féin (meaning “Ourselves Alone”) initially advocated for dual monarchy — a peaceful separation modelled on the Austro-Hungarian Empire. However, Griffith’s original platform remained relatively marginal before 1916.
Sinn Féin: An Irish nationalist political movement advocating self-governance and independence from Britain, evolving from constitutional methods to revolutionary leadership after 1916.
By 1916, radical nationalists seeking full Irish independence had overshadowed Griffith’s moderate stance. The Easter Rising, though not organised by Sinn Féin, transformed the party’s image and trajectory.
The Easter Rising of 1916
Causes and Planning
The Rising stemmed from deep-rooted nationalist frustration. Contributing factors included:
Suspension of Home Rule in 1914 due to the First World War, disillusioning constitutional nationalists.
Influence of cultural nationalism and the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB).
Fear that conscription and prolonged British rule would erase Irish autonomy.
A coalition of revolutionary groups — including the IRB, Irish Volunteers, and the Irish Citizen Army — planned an armed insurrection for Easter Week.
Key Events and Leadership
On 24 April 1916, around 1,200 rebels seized strategic sites in Dublin, proclaiming an Irish Republic. Leaders included:
Patrick Pearse, who read the Proclamation of the Republic.
James Connolly, commander of the Citizen Army.
Thomas Clarke and Joseph Plunkett, central figures in planning.
The rebellion faced overwhelming odds against well-armed British forces. After six days of fighting, the rebels surrendered.
British Response and Shift in Public Opinion
Initially, Irish public opinion was hostile to the Rising, blaming rebels for the destruction and casualties. However, British actions quickly altered sentiment:
The execution of 15 leaders (including Pearse and Connolly) shocked many.
Mass arrests and internment of suspected sympathisers broadened resentment.
This repression radicalised Irish opinion, delegitimising moderate nationalism and paving the way for Sinn Féin’s ascendancy.
Sinn Féin’s Transformation and Electoral Success
Reorganisation and Growth
Though not directly involved in the Rising, Sinn Féin was erroneously blamed by British authorities, associating it with the rebellion. This association became a strength. Under Éamon de Valera, a Rising veteran, Sinn Féin was restructured as a republican party advocating full independence.
Key developments included:
The 1917 and 1918 by-elections, where Sinn Féin candidates triumphed over the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP).
Growing support for abstentionism — refusing to take seats in Westminster as a rejection of British rule.
The 1918 General Election
The December 1918 election marked a decisive shift:
Sinn Féin won 73 of 105 Irish seats, while the IPP collapsed.
The victory provided a democratic mandate for Irish independence.
The First Dáil and Declaration of Independence
On 21 January 1919, Sinn Féin MPs convened the First Dáil Éireann in Dublin, declaring Ireland an independent republic and issuing a Declaration of Independence. This bold step was a direct challenge to British sovereignty and set the stage for armed conflict.
Members of the First Dáil photographed at the Mansion House, January 1919. The image evidences Sinn Féin’s abstentionist mandate and the establishment of a rival legislature central to escalating conflict. Source
Dáil Éireann: The revolutionary Irish parliament established by Sinn Féin in 1919, asserting Ireland’s independence from Britain.
The Dáil established a parallel government, with ministries, courts, and local councils, demonstrating functional self-rule and undermining British authority in Ireland.
The Anglo-Irish War (1919–1921)
Outbreak and Nature of the Conflict
The Anglo-Irish War, also known as the Irish War of Independence, began the same day as the First Dáil with the Soloheadbeg ambush, where Irish Volunteers (IRA) killed two police officers.
Irish Republican Army (IRA): The military organisation formed from the Irish Volunteers, dedicated to achieving Irish independence through armed struggle.
The war was characterised by guerrilla tactics:
Ambushes, raids, and assassinations targeted police, military, and informants.
The IRA, under leaders like Michael Collins, focused on intelligence and mobility.
The British response involved Black and Tans and Auxiliaries, notorious for reprisals and brutality.
Impact on Society and British Policy
The conflict deeply polarised Ireland:
Civilian casualties and reprisals eroded public trust in British authority.
British coercion — including martial law and collective punishments — intensified resistance rather than suppressing it.
Support for the Dáil and IRA grew, bolstered by international sympathy, particularly from the United States.
Truce and Anglo-Irish Treaty Negotiations
Ceasefire and Negotiations
Exhaustion on both sides led to a truce on 11 July 1921. Negotiations followed between British Prime Minister David Lloyd George and Irish delegates including Arthur Griffith and Michael Collins.
Key points of contention included:
British insistence on remaining part of the British Empire.
Irish demands for full independence.
The Anglo-Irish Treaty (December 1921)
The Anglo-Irish Treaty established the Irish Free State as a self-governing dominion, similar to Canada, within the British Commonwealth. However, it required an oath of allegiance to the Crown and accepted partition, creating Northern Ireland.
Signature page of the Anglo-Irish Treaty (December 1921), including the signatures of David Lloyd George and Michael Collins. It evidences the diplomatic end-point of the conflict described in the notes. Source
Reactions were mixed:
Some nationalists saw it as a pragmatic step towards sovereignty.
Others, including Éamon de Valera, rejected it as a betrayal of the republic.
This division triggered the Irish Civil War (1922–1923), a conflict beyond the syllabus scope but rooted in the revolutionary phase initiated in 1916.
FAQ
Women were actively involved in the Easter Rising through organisations like Cumann na mBan, which supported the insurgents by carrying messages, transporting arms, and providing medical aid.
Notably, Constance Markievicz fought alongside the rebels at St Stephen’s Green and later became the first woman elected to the British Parliament (though she did not take her seat). Their participation challenged traditional gender roles and highlighted the broader societal changes linked to revolutionary nationalism.
British propaganda depicted Sinn Féin and the IRA as criminals and terrorists, aiming to delegitimise their cause domestically and internationally. Newspapers and official statements emphasised IRA violence while minimising British reprisals.
This portrayal aimed to justify harsh security measures and maintain British public support for continued rule. However, reports of reprisals by the Black and Tans often undermined this narrative, increasing sympathy for the Irish cause abroad, especially in the United States.
Collins recognised that the IRA was militarily weaker than British forces, so intelligence became a crucial tool in the guerrilla campaign.
He built a network of spies and informants within the British administration and police.
Information allowed the IRA to target British intelligence officers, crippling enemy operations.
High-profile actions like the “Bloody Sunday” assassinations (1920) severely damaged British morale and intelligence capacity.
This strategic emphasis levelled the playing field and increased pressure for negotiations.
The Soloheadbeg ambush on 21 January 1919, in which two Royal Irish Constabulary officers were killed, marked the start of the Anglo-Irish War.
It was conducted by a local IRA unit without explicit Dáil authorisation, illustrating the fragmented nature of early resistance. Despite this, the Dáil later endorsed such actions, integrating them into a broader revolutionary struggle. The ambush symbolised the transition from political assertion to armed conflict in pursuit of independence.
The Treaty caused a bitter split in the nationalist movement. Supporters, led by Michael Collins, argued it was a stepping stone to full independence. Opponents, including Éamon de Valera, viewed it as a betrayal due to the oath of allegiance and partition.
This division led to the Irish Civil War (1922–1923), pitting pro- and anti-Treaty forces against one another. The split also shaped Irish politics for decades, forming the basis of parties like Fianna Fáil and Fine Gael.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Who read the Proclamation of the Irish Republic during the Easter Rising of 1916, and where was it proclaimed?
Mark scheme (2 marks total):
1 mark for correctly naming Patrick Pearse as the reader.
1 mark for identifying the General Post Office (GPO) in Dublin as the location.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Sinn Féin’s political strategy changed between the Easter Rising of 1916 and the Anglo-Irish War of 1919–1921.
Mark scheme (6 marks total):
1 mark for identifying Sinn Féin’s initial association with the Rising, despite not organising it.
1 mark for noting the shift to a republican platform under Éamon de Valera after 1916.
1 mark for describing abstentionism from Westminster and the establishment of the First Dáil in 1919.
1 mark for explaining how the Dáil declared independence and acted as a parallel government.
1 mark for outlining the use of guerrilla warfare by the IRA as part of the broader nationalist campaign.
1 mark for noting how these strategies undermined British authority and contributed to negotiations leading to the Anglo-Irish Treaty.
