OCR Specification focus:
‘Home Rule and Partition (1920–1921) redefined Ireland’s constitutional relationship with Britain.’
Home Rule and Partition between 1920 and 1921 marked a turning point in British-Irish relations, reshaping governance, identity, and the constitutional structure of the United Kingdom.
The Background to Home Rule and Partition
The issue of Home Rule – the demand for a separate Irish parliament within the United Kingdom – had dominated Anglo-Irish politics since the late nineteenth century. Earlier Home Rule Bills (1886, 1893, and 1912) had all failed to establish Irish self-government, primarily due to Unionist opposition, especially in Ulster, and political crises such as the outbreak of the First World War. The 1912 Home Rule Act was passed but suspended for the duration of the war, and subsequent events transformed the political landscape.
The Easter Rising (1916) and the rise of Sinn Féin shifted nationalist momentum away from constitutional nationalism towards a more radical, separatist approach. Sinn Féin’s landslide victory in the 1918 general election led to the establishment of Dáil Éireann, a revolutionary Irish parliament, and the outbreak of the Anglo-Irish War (1919–1921). These developments compelled the British government to reconsider its approach to Irish governance.
The Government of Ireland Act 1920
The Government of Ireland Act (1920) represented the British government’s attempt to address nationalist aspirations while preserving the Union.
Government of Ireland Act 1920: Legislation creating two separate parliaments in Ireland – one for Northern Ireland and one for Southern Ireland – under continued British sovereignty.
The Act divided Ireland into two self-governing entities:
Northern Ireland, comprising six predominantly Protestant counties of Ulster: Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry, and Tyrone.
Southern Ireland, consisting of the remaining twenty-six counties, where nationalist sentiment was strongest.
Each would have its own bicameral parliament with control over domestic affairs such as education, health, and local government, while matters like defence, foreign policy, and trade remained under Westminster.
The Act also proposed a Council of Ireland, a body intended to encourage cooperation between the two parliaments and potentially pave the way for eventual Irish unity.
Implementation and Immediate Outcomes
While the Northern Ireland Parliament opened in June 1921, the Southern Ireland Parliament never functioned effectively. Nationalists, led by Sinn Féin, rejected the Act, viewing it as inadequate and illegitimate. Instead, they continued to recognise the Dáil as the sole legitimate government and pursued independence through armed resistance.
In Northern Ireland, however, the Act was implemented. Unionists, under leaders like Sir James Craig, accepted the new parliament as a means of maintaining their British identity and resisting rule from Dublin. This entrenched political division and institutionalised the partition of Ireland.
Partition: The formal division of Ireland into two separate political entities – Northern Ireland (remaining in the United Kingdom) and Southern Ireland (later evolving into the Irish Free State).
Northern Ireland comprised six Ulster counties; the remaining twenty-six counties formed Southern Ireland.
Northern Ireland’s six counties (Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry/Derry, and Tyrone) as structured for Westminster representation under the 1920 Act. The map also displays constituency boundaries (additional detail not required by this sub-subtopic) and is useful for seeing how political representation mapped onto the new six-county statelet. Source
The Anglo-Irish War and the Truce of 1921
The Anglo-Irish War intensified between 1919 and 1921, as the Irish Republican Army (IRA) fought a guerrilla campaign against British forces, including the Black and Tans and Auxiliaries. Violence, reprisals, and atrocities on both sides created political pressure for a negotiated settlement.
By mid-1921, the conflict had reached a stalemate. Neither side could secure a decisive victory, and public opinion in Britain increasingly demanded an end to the violence. A truce was agreed on 11 July 1921, opening the door to political negotiations.
The Anglo-Irish Treaty and Its Implications
The Anglo-Irish Treaty (6 December 1921) endorsed partition while establishing the Irish Free State as a dominion within the British Empire.
Arthur Griffith with members of the Irish delegation in London during the 1921 peace conference that produced the Anglo-Irish Treaty. The agreement ended the War of Independence, accepted partition, and created the Irish Free State as a dominion. Source
Key terms included:
Irish Free State status with substantial autonomy while retaining allegiance to the Crown.
A Governor-General representing the British monarch.
An oath of allegiance to the British king for members of the Free State parliament.
Retention of Northern Ireland within the United Kingdom, with an option to join the Free State – an option Unionists declined
The Treaty formalised the partition of Ireland. Northern Ireland exercised its right to remain part of the UK, while Southern Ireland transitioned into a new political entity.
Consequences and Historical Significance
Political Realignment
The Treaty caused deep divisions within Irish nationalism. Supporters saw it as a pragmatic step towards full independence; opponents viewed it as a betrayal of the republican ideal. These tensions led to the Irish Civil War (1922–1923), profoundly shaping the future politics of the island.
Institutionalising Partition
Partition became a defining feature of Anglo-Irish relations. Northern Ireland developed distinct political structures under Unionist dominance, while the Irish Free State evolved into a sovereign republic by 1949. The border created in 1921 entrenched sectarian divisions, shaping identity, governance, and conflict for decades.
Long-Term Impact on British-Irish Relations
The events of 1920–1921 transformed Ireland’s constitutional relationship with Britain. The United Kingdom was redefined as a state incorporating England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland. The Irish question shifted from demands for autonomy within the Union to managing relations with a neighbouring state and addressing the complexities of Northern Ireland’s place within the UK.
Legacy of Home Rule and Partition
The Government of Ireland Act and subsequent Anglo-Irish Treaty represented both continuity and change. While Home Rule – long a nationalist demand – was partially realised, it came in a form few had anticipated: partition rather than unity. The British government achieved its aim of retaining part of Ireland within the Union, but at the cost of conceding independence to the majority of the island.
The events of 1920–1921 therefore stand as a critical moment in Irish and British history. They marked the end of over a century of direct British governance of Ireland (outside Ulster) and the beginning of a new phase defined by dual identities, sectarian divisions, and a complex constitutional legacy that endures into the twenty-first century.
FAQ
Unionists opposed earlier Home Rule Bills because they feared domination by a Catholic nationalist majority in a Dublin-based parliament. The 1920 Act offered a solution by creating Northern Ireland as a separate entity with its own parliament, ensuring continued union with Britain.
It allowed Unionists to govern themselves locally while remaining part of the United Kingdom, protecting their political, religious, and economic interests. The new six-county state also reflected the demographic reality of a Protestant majority, strengthening Unionist confidence in retaining British identity.
The British government saw partition as a pragmatic compromise. Attempts to satisfy both Unionists and Nationalists with a single Irish parliament had repeatedly failed, and by 1920, the island was deeply divided politically and religiously.
Partition allowed Britain to:
Preserve the Union in areas where support remained strong (Ulster).
Grant a measure of self-government to Nationalists without conceding full independence.
Reduce violence by separating opposing communities and creating distinct political structures.
The Council of Ireland was designed as a joint body composed of representatives from both Northern and Southern parliaments. Its purpose was to coordinate policies and encourage cooperation on shared issues such as transport and trade.
Although intended as a step towards eventual Irish unity, the Council never achieved real influence. The Southern parliament failed to function, and Unionists in the North were wary of anything that might lead to reunification. The Council was dissolved in 1925 without significant achievements.
Reactions were deeply divided. Many Nationalists, including Michael Collins, accepted the Treaty as a necessary step towards eventual independence and a pragmatic end to the war. Others, notably Éamon de Valera, rejected it as a betrayal of the Irish Republic declared in 1916.
The split led to the Irish Civil War (1922–1923) between pro- and anti-Treaty forces, shaping the political landscape of the new state. The Treaty thus created independence but also sowed the seeds of internal conflict.
The dominion model, already applied to Canada, Australia, and South Africa, allowed colonies substantial self-government while recognising the British monarch as head of state. Britain used this model in the Irish Free State to grant autonomy without full independence.
The Irish government controlled internal affairs but remained part of the Empire, with a Governor-General as the Crown’s representative. Over time, this status enabled Ireland to expand its sovereignty and eventually become a republic in 1949, demonstrating the dominion system’s potential as a transitional stage to independence.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name the two political entities created by the Government of Ireland Act 1920.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for correctly naming Northern Ireland.
1 mark for correctly naming Southern Ireland.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 1921 shaped the political future of Ireland.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 6 marks based on the following indicative content:
1 mark for identifying that the Treaty created the Irish Free State as a self-governing dominion within the British Empire.
1 mark for noting that the Treaty confirmed partition, with Northern Ireland remaining part of the United Kingdom.
1 mark for explaining that members of the Free State parliament were required to swear an oath of allegiance to the British Crown.
1 mark for recognising that the Treaty allowed Northern Ireland an option to join the Free State, which Unionists rejected.
1 mark for explaining that the Treaty ended the Anglo-Irish War and shifted the struggle from armed conflict to political negotiation.
1 mark for showing understanding of its longer-term consequences, such as political divisions leading to the Irish Civil War or the eventual evolution of the Free State into a fully independent republic.
