OCR Specification focus:
‘The Famine (1845–1849) transformed economy, society and nationalist thought.’
The Great Famine (1845–1849) devastated Ireland, reshaping its economy, transforming society, and intensifying nationalist sentiment, leaving lasting consequences for British–Irish relations and political movements into the twentieth century.
Background and Causes of the Great Famine
Ireland’s Agrarian Economy and Dependence on the Potato
In the early nineteenth century, Ireland’s economy was overwhelmingly agrarian, with the vast majority of the population dependent on agriculture for subsistence and employment.
By the 1840s, over three million people relied almost exclusively on the potato as their primary food source.
Small tenant farmers and cottiers (landless labourers renting small plots) were particularly vulnerable to any disruption in potato harvests.
Cottier: A rural labourer who rented a small plot of land, usually paying rent with labour, and heavily dependent on the potato crop.
This overdependence created structural fragility. A single crop failure risked catastrophic famine, particularly in a society already marked by widespread poverty, high population density, and limited alternative employment opportunities.
The Potato Blight and Its Devastation
The potato blight (Phytophthora infestans), a fungal disease destroying potato plants, first appeared in Ireland in 1845.
The initial failure was severe but partial; however, subsequent failures in 1846 and 1848 were almost total.
By 1849, over one million people had died, and at least one million more emigrated, reducing Ireland’s population by approximately 20–25%.
Entire communities in the west and south-west were depopulated, and mass evictions accompanied the collapse of tenant agriculture.
Economic Impact of the Famine
Collapse of the Rural Economy
The Famine undermined the agrarian economic structure that had defined Ireland.
Smallholdings became untenable, with widespread bankruptcy of tenant farmers and decline in rural rents.
Landlords, dependent on rents, faced ruin; many estates were sold under the Encumbered Estates Act (1849), transferring land ownership and consolidating holdings into fewer hands.
The traditional system of conacre (short-term land rental) disintegrated, and larger, more commercial farms emerged.
Encumbered Estates Act (1849): Legislation allowing indebted landlords to sell their estates quickly, enabling land consolidation and restructuring of Irish agriculture.
The economic effects extended beyond agriculture. Domestic industries reliant on rural demand declined, and local markets collapsed. Trade and manufacturing stagnated due to the combined impact of emigration, population loss, and falling purchasing power.
Emigration and Remittances
Mass emigration, primarily to Britain, the United States, and Canada, reshaped Ireland’s economy.
Migrants often sent remittances back to relatives, which became a crucial source of income for the Irish economy in the later nineteenth century.
Labour shortages in rural areas shifted wage dynamics and encouraged mechanisation and consolidation of agriculture.
Political Impact and British Government Response
Government Policies and Ideological Constraints
The British government’s response, shaped by laissez-faire economic ideology, was widely criticised as inadequate.
Sir Robert Peel’s Conservative government (1845–1846) imported Indian corn (maize) and began public works, but measures were short-term.
Lord John Russell’s Liberal government (1846–1852) reduced direct relief, preferring local responsibility and minimal state intervention.
The Poor Law Extension Act (1847) placed the cost of relief on Irish ratepayers, overburdening impoverished districts and fuelling resentment.
Laissez-faire: An economic philosophy advocating minimal state intervention in the economy, believing free markets should regulate themselves.
The British reliance on market forces during mass starvation appeared callous, deepening Irish hostility and eroding trust in Westminster governance.
Rise of Nationalist Critique
The Famine’s political legacy was profound. Many Irish people interpreted the British response as evidence of colonial neglect or deliberate indifference, radicalising nationalist opinion.
The failure of government relief strengthened revolutionary nationalism, exemplified by the Young Ireland Rising of 1848, a failed but symbolically significant rebellion.
The catastrophe became a central grievance in nationalist discourse, cited by later movements such as the Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB) and Sinn Féin as evidence of the Union’s failure.
Social Consequences and Their Political Ramifications
Demographic Transformation
The scale of death and emigration reshaped Ireland’s demographic structure:
The population fell from over 8 million in 1841 to 6.5 million by 1851, continuing to decline thereafter.
Historical population of Ireland, 1800s–present. The curve displays the steep mid-century collapse associated with the Famine, followed by decades of further decline via death and emigration, providing demographic context for its economic and political consequences. Source
Depopulation was especially severe in western and Gaelic-speaking regions, leading to cultural erosion and weakening traditional social structures.
The reduction in smallholders accelerated a shift toward pastoral farming, aligning the economy more closely with British commercial needs.
Strengthening of the Irish Diaspora
The Irish diaspora, particularly in the United States, became a powerful force in Irish nationalist politics.
Exiled communities maintained strong anti-British sentiment and provided financial and political support to nationalist movements.
Organisations such as Clan na Gael and later Fenian networks drew heavily on emigrant communities, linking the trauma of the Famine with ongoing demands for independence.
Long-Term Political Consequences
Shift in Nationalist Thought
The Famine marked a turning point in Irish political consciousness. It discredited moderate reformism and fostered a belief that self-government was essential to prevent future disasters.
The perception that British policy prioritised imperial and landlord interests over Irish welfare bolstered constitutional nationalism (as seen later with the Home Rule movement) and revolutionary nationalism alike.
The trauma became a nationalist touchstone, referenced by leaders from Parnell to de Valera as emblematic of Ireland’s suffering under British rule.
Redefining British–Irish Relations
The Famine’s legacy influenced British policy too. The scale of suffering and the criticism of government failure prompted later efforts at reform, including:
The Encumbered Estates Act and later land legislation.
Efforts to modernise Irish governance and extend limited reforms within the Union framework.
However, these measures did little to erase the memory of perceived neglect. The Famine became a symbol of the Union’s failure, shaping Irish politics and Anglo-Irish relations into the twentieth century.
FAQ
The Corn Laws, which imposed tariffs on imported grain to protect British agriculture, influenced early famine policy. Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel repealed the Corn Laws in 1846, partly to ease food shortages and reduce grain prices.
However, the repeal had limited immediate impact because the Irish crisis was caused by potato failure, not a lack of grain. Many Irish people could not afford grain even when imports increased, and much of the food continued to be exported. The decision’s political consequences were greater than its practical relief, splitting the Conservative Party and shaping future British policy.
The Poor Law Extension Act (1847) fundamentally altered relief provision by making Irish ratepayers responsible for famine aid rather than the British state.
Key changes included:
Expansion of workhouses and outdoor relief (aid given outside institutions).
Increased financial burden on local landlords and communities, often bankrupting poor unions.
Evictions rose sharply as landlords sought to reduce liability for pauper tenants.
This shift deepened resentment towards British policy, as many Irish believed it abandoned them during crisis and entrenched inequality between landlords and tenants.
Despite widespread starvation, Ireland continued exporting large quantities of food — including grain, beef, and dairy — to Britain and beyond.
This occurred because:
Most farmland was devoted to cash crops and livestock for export, not subsistence farming.
The British government adhered to laissez-faire principles, refusing to interfere with trade or compel food redistribution.
Landlords prioritised profit and debt repayment, often exporting food even from famine-stricken regions.
The persistence of exports became a powerful symbol of perceived colonial exploitation and fuelled nationalist accusations that the famine was worsened by British economic policy.
Private and international efforts played a crucial role in mitigating famine suffering, particularly where government relief was limited.
Key contributions included:
Quaker organisations established soup kitchens and distributed aid with minimal bureaucracy.
Donations arrived from across the world — notably from the Ottoman Empire, India, and the United States, including funds raised by Irish-American communities.
Pope Pius IX and European Catholic groups also provided significant assistance.
Although these efforts saved lives, they could not address the scale of the crisis. Their visibility, however, contrasted with the perceived inadequacy of British state action and shaped political narratives.
The Famine exposed deep flaws in Irish landholding structures, particularly absentee landlordism and insecure tenancy, prompting long-term demands for reform.
Consequences included:
A drive for tenant rights and security, later championed by movements like the Tenant Right League and the Irish National Land League.
Increased calls for land redistribution and legislation to curb landlord power.
The trauma of mass evictions and estate sales laid the groundwork for nineteenth-century land acts, gradually transferring land from landlords to tenants.
Thus, the famine did not just reshape demographics — it fundamentally altered Ireland’s social and political landscape, turning land reform into a central issue in nationalist politics.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two economic consequences of the Great Famine (1845–1849) for Ireland.
Mark scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correct consequence, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Accept any of the following points (or other valid examples):
Consolidation of farmland into larger, more commercial farms.
Collapse of smallholdings and widespread tenant bankruptcy.
Sale of estates under the Encumbered Estates Act (1849).
Decline in domestic industries and local markets.
Significant emigration reducing the rural labour force.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the British government’s response to the Great Famine influenced Irish nationalist attitudes.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic statements about British response or nationalist attitudes with limited linkage.
e.g. “The British government did little to help, so Irish people were angry.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation of how government actions or policies shaped nationalist opinion, though may lack depth or detailed examples.
e.g. “The government’s reliance on laissez-faire economics made many Irish people believe Britain did not care, increasing resentment and fuelling nationalist feeling.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Detailed explanation of how specific government policies contributed to the development of nationalist attitudes, supported by examples and showing understanding of cause and effect.
Points may include:
Peel’s limited interventions and Russell’s reduction of relief reinforced perceptions of British neglect.
The Poor Law Extension Act placed the burden on impoverished Irish ratepayers, deepening resentment.
Many Irish interpreted the response as colonial indifference, radicalising nationalist groups such as Young Ireland.
The memory of government failure became a lasting grievance, influencing later nationalist movements like the IRB and Sinn Féin.
