OCR Specification focus:
‘Causes, leadership, extent, support and consequences of the 1798 Wolfe Tone Rising.’
The 1798 Rising was a pivotal moment in Irish history, driven by revolutionary nationalism and deep social, political, and religious tensions, with lasting consequences for British-Irish relations.
Causes of the 1798 Rising
Influence of the French Revolution
The French Revolution (1789–1799) had a profound impact on Irish political thought, promoting ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity. These Enlightenment-inspired principles encouraged Irish radicals to question monarchical authority and the political dominance of the Protestant Ascendancy.
The United Irishmen, inspired by the Revolution, aimed to establish an independent Irish republic free from British control.
Revolutionary France’s wars against Britain presented an opportunity for Irish nationalists to align with a powerful ally.
Revolutionary Nationalism: A political movement seeking the complete overthrow of an existing political order to establish a sovereign, often republican, state based on revolutionary ideals.
Religious and Political Grievances
Ireland in the late 18th century was marked by deep sectarian and political divisions.
Penal Laws restricted Catholic rights in land ownership, voting, and political participation.
The Anglican Ascendancy monopolised power through the Irish Parliament, alienating both Catholics and Presbyterians.
Discrimination against Presbyterians in Ulster, who were excluded from political office, encouraged cross-sectarian cooperation against British rule.
These grievances fuelled resentment and fostered revolutionary aims among various groups seeking political reform and religious equality.
Economic and Social Pressures
Ireland’s agrarian economy faced serious pressures in the 1790s:
Widespread poverty among tenant farmers created social instability.
Population growth increased competition for land and resources.
Harsh landlord-tenant relations and rent collection practices intensified rural discontent.
This economic hardship contributed to a volatile atmosphere ripe for rebellion.
British Repression and Radicalisation
The British government responded harshly to signs of dissent, which radicalised opposition further.
The 1793 Militia Act, which compelled Irish men to serve in British forces, was deeply unpopular.
Repression of political societies and arrests of reformers increased resentment.
Government-backed groups like the Orange Order (founded 1795) inflamed sectarian tensions, undermining efforts at cross-community unity.
Leadership and Organisation
Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen
Theobald Wolfe Tone (1763–1798) was the leading figure of the 1798 Rising.
A Protestant lawyer and political thinker, he founded the Society of United Irishmen in Belfast in 1791.
Tone’s vision was to unite “Catholic, Protestant and Dissenter” in pursuit of Irish independence.
He sought French military assistance to overthrow British rule.
The United Irishmen evolved from a reformist group into a revolutionary organisation aiming for a democratic Irish republic.
Society of United Irishmen: A radical organisation founded in 1791 aiming to unite Irish people across religious divides and achieve independence from Britain.
Other Key Leaders
While Wolfe Tone was the ideological leader, several figures led local uprisings:
Henry Joy McCracken – led the Belfast rebellion in County Antrim.
Henry Munro – commanded forces in County Down.
Father John Murphy – a Catholic priest who led the Wexford rising.
Edward Fitzgerald – an aristocratic radical and key organiser in Leinster.
These leaders coordinated local revolts but struggled to unify their forces nationally.
The Course and Extent of the Rising
Outbreak of Rebellion
The rising began in May 1798, triggered by escalating repression and failed French invasion plans. The rebellion was concentrated in several regions:
Leinster (Wexford): The most intense fighting occurred here, including battles at Vinegar Hill and New Ross.
Ulster: Initial uprisings in Antrim and Down were quickly suppressed.
Connacht: A French expedition landed at Killala Bay in August, briefly establishing a “Republic of Connacht.”
Despite isolated successes, the rebellion lacked central coordination and was plagued by poor communication and organisation.
French Involvement
Wolfe Tone secured support from revolutionary France, but this came too late and on too small a scale:
A small French force (c.1,000 men) under General Humbert landed in August 1798 but was defeated at Ballinamuck.
Tone himself was captured while attempting another landing and died in British custody.
French aid, while symbolically significant, could not reverse the rebellion’s fortunes.
Support for the Rising
Popular Support
The rising drew significant support from various sections of Irish society:
Catholic peasantry, especially in Wexford, participated in large numbers, motivated by land grievances and resentment of Protestant landlords.
Some Presbyterians in Ulster initially supported the United Irishmen, inspired by republican ideals and opposition to Anglican dominance.
However, sectarian mistrust and violent outbreaks, including massacres of loyalists, weakened the cross-sectarian unity Wolfe Tone envisioned.
Opposition and Loyalism
Support for the rising was far from universal:
The Protestant Ascendancy and many Anglicans remained loyal to Britain, fearing Catholic domination.
The Orange Order mobilised militias against the rebels, intensifying sectarian conflict.
Many Catholics were cautious or loyalist, wary of violent upheaval or lacking faith in French intervention.
Consequences of the Rising
Repression and Casualties
The British government responded with brutal suppression:
Around 30,000 people were killed, many in massacres and reprisals.
Executions, transportation, and confiscations followed the defeat of the rebels.
Wolfe Tone’s death became a martyrdom symbol for Irish nationalism.
Political Aftermath
The rising had far-reaching political effects:
It convinced British policymakers that Ireland required closer integration, contributing directly to the Act of Union (1800), which created the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland in 1801.
The failure of cross-sectarian cooperation hardened sectarian divisions, shaping future nationalist movements.
Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen became enduring symbols of revolutionary nationalism, influencing later movements such as Young Ireland and the Fenians.
The 1798 Rising marked a turning point in Irish history: despite its failure, it laid the ideological groundwork for future struggles for independence and redefined British-Irish relations for generations.
FAQ
Secret societies were crucial to the planning and coordination of the rebellion. The United Irishmen operated clandestinely after being banned in 1794, using coded messages, oaths, and local cells to evade government surveillance.
In rural areas, societies like the Defenders, originally formed for Catholic self-defence, aligned with the United Irishmen, broadening the rebellion’s base.
These networks facilitated the spread of revolutionary ideas and coordinated uprisings, though secrecy also led to poor communication and inconsistent timing of revolts.
The British government effectively used spies and informers to undermine the rebellion before it began.
High-ranking members of the United Irishmen were arrested in March 1798, severely disrupting plans for a coordinated national uprising.
Intelligence gathering enabled the authorities to deploy troops strategically and crush local risings before they gained momentum.
This infiltration limited French coordination and prevented a larger-scale, more organised revolt.
Religion was both a unifying and divisive force.
Many Catholics supported the rebellion due to grievances over land, political exclusion, and religious discrimination.
Some Presbyterians in Ulster joined the United Irishmen, inspired by republican ideals and resentment of Anglican dominance.
However, sectarian violence, including massacres by rebel and loyalist forces, eroded cross-sectarian unity and pushed many Protestants and cautious Catholics to oppose the rebellion.
French involvement had symbolic and strategic importance beyond the limited troops they sent.
It demonstrated that Irish rebels had international support, boosting morale and legitimacy.
France’s interest was part of its broader strategy to destabilise Britain during the Revolutionary Wars.
Even though the expeditions failed militarily, the prospect of French aid influenced British policy, contributing to harsh repression and later legislative changes like the Act of Union (1800).
The Rising left a powerful legacy for Irish nationalism.
Wolfe Tone’s ideals of secular republicanism and cross-sectarian unity inspired later groups such as Young Ireland and the Fenians.
The rebellion highlighted the importance of foreign support and organisational discipline, lessons later nationalists sought to apply.
The martyrdom of leaders like Wolfe Tone created enduring symbols for Irish independence, shaping nationalist rhetoric well into the 20th century.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two causes of the 1798 Rising in Ireland.
Mark Scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correctly identified cause.
Possible answers include:
Influence of the French Revolution and revolutionary ideals. (1)
Religious and political grievances, including discrimination against Catholics and Presbyterians. (1)
Economic hardship and agrarian pressures. (1)
British repression, including the Militia Act and suppression of reformers. (1)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how the leadership of Wolfe Tone and the United Irishmen contributed to the 1798 Rising.
Mark Scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Simple or general statements with limited detail.
May mention Wolfe Tone without explanation of his role.
Limited or no reference to the United Irishmen’s aims or actions.
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation with relevant detail, though lacking depth or breadth.
Mentions Wolfe Tone’s aim to unite “Catholic, Protestant and Dissenter.”
Refers to the founding of the Society of United Irishmen and its goal of independence.
Some recognition of attempts to seek French support.
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear and developed explanation with supporting detail.
Explains Wolfe Tone’s central role as leader and ideologue, promoting revolutionary nationalism.
Discusses how the United Irishmen’s shift from reform to revolution provided organisational structure for the rebellion.
Explains Tone’s efforts to gain French military assistance, highlighting its significance even if limited in impact.
May refer to the role of other leaders (e.g., Henry Joy McCracken, Father John Murphy) in expanding the rebellion’s scope.
