OCR Specification focus:
‘Women’s status and rural society reflected tradition, hardship and gradual change.’
From 1839 to 1989, women’s lives and rural society in China were shaped by enduring traditions, immense hardship, and transformative reforms that gradually reshaped gender roles.
Traditional Roles of Women in Imperial China
Confucian Ideals and Gender Hierarchy
For much of the 19th century, women’s status in China was defined by Confucian ideology, which placed them firmly within a patriarchal order.
Patriarchy: A social system in which men hold primary power, dominating in roles of political leadership, moral authority, and property ownership.
Confucian teachings emphasised the "Three Obediences" — to father before marriage, husband after marriage, and son in widowhood — reinforcing women’s subordination. Social norms valued women primarily for their roles as daughters, wives, and mothers, and their honour was closely tied to chastity and obedience.
Marriage, Family, and Foot Binding
Marriage was typically arranged, strengthening family alliances rather than individual choice. Women were transferred from their natal families to their husbands’ households, where they often had little authority. The practice of foot binding, which involved tightly binding young girls’ feet to achieve a small size, symbolised feminine beauty and submission but caused lifelong disability.
Plaster model of a left foot deformed by foot-binding, showing the curled toes and compressed arch produced by prolonged binding. The model reveals the anatomical damage behind women’s restricted mobility and dependence within a patriarchal society. Source
Dowries were expected and reinforced the transactional nature of marriage.
Women’s property rights were severely restricted.
Widow remarriage was frowned upon, and widow chastity was idealised.
In rural areas, these traditions were often more strictly enforced, reflecting the deeply conservative nature of agrarian society.
Hardship and Rural Life in the 19th Century
Labour and Subsistence in the Countryside
The vast majority of China’s population lived in the countryside and relied on subsistence agriculture. Rural women played essential roles in household economies, working in the fields, tending livestock, and contributing to handicraft production such as weaving and spinning. Despite their economic contribution, women received little formal recognition or reward.
Rural poverty was widespread, with frequent famines and natural disasters compounding hardship.
Women’s work was often unpaid and undervalued, reinforcing their secondary social status.
Educational opportunities for girls were rare, limiting literacy and upward mobility.
Social Pressures and Family Structures
Rural life was governed by the extended family system, with multiple generations living together under a patriarchal head. Women were subject to the authority of senior male relatives and often faced domestic hierarchies, particularly from mothers-in-law. Sons were preferred over daughters, both for labour and ancestral worship, contributing to gender imbalance and neglect of girls.
Early Reform Efforts and the Republican Era (1900–1949)
Decline of Traditional Practices
The collapse of the Qing dynasty in 1911 and the rise of reformist movements challenged some traditional norms. Intellectuals of the May Fourth Movement (1919) denounced Confucian patriarchy and called for women’s liberation. Foot binding was officially banned, and campaigns sought to end practices such as child marriage and concubinage.
Urban women gained limited access to education and employment, though change in rural areas was slower.
Women’s rights became a subject of political discourse but remained constrained by entrenched customs.
Marriage reform laws were proposed, advocating free choice in marriage and equality between spouses.
Despite these changes, rural society retained traditional structures, and most peasant women saw little improvement in their daily lives.
Women and Revolution
Revolutionary leaders such as Sun Yat-sen and later the Guomindang (GMD) promoted women’s participation in nation-building, though their policies often prioritised urban elites. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP), founded in 1921, was more radical in its approach, arguing that women’s emancipation was essential to social revolution. Communist organisers in rural areas encouraged women to resist patriarchal oppression and participate in political mobilisation, laying the groundwork for future reforms.
Women and Rural Society under Communist Rule (1949–1976)
Legal Equality and Land Reform
The Communist victory in 1949 brought major changes to rural society. The Marriage Law of 1950 abolished arranged marriages, polygamy, and concubinage, and promoted equality between men and women.
Marriage Law (1950): Landmark legislation that established legal equality in marriage, outlawing arranged marriages and granting women the right to divorce.
At the same time, land reform redistributed land from landlords to peasants, including women, challenging centuries of male control over property. Women could now hold land in their own names, enhancing their economic independence.
Rural women participated in collectivisation, working in People’s Communes and contributing to agricultural production
Access to basic education and healthcare improved significantly.
Female labour mobilisation during campaigns like the Great Leap Forward (1958–62) expanded women’s roles beyond domestic spheres.
Social Expectations and Limitations
Despite formal equality, women often faced a double burden of fieldwork and domestic responsibilities. Traditional gender expectations persisted, particularly among older generations. Political campaigns frequently glorified women as workers and mothers, encapsulated in the slogan "Women hold up half the sky", but leadership roles remained dominated by men.
Communal childcare and canteens aimed to reduce domestic labour but were inconsistently implemented.
A People’s commune canteen during the Great Leap Forward, depicting collective dining designed to free women from domestic cooking and redirect their labour to production. The image shows how communal policies transformed rural daily life, though implementation varied. Source
Women’s representation in local governance increased but remained limited.
Maoist ideology promoted gender equality rhetorically, though patriarchal attitudes endured.
Transformation after 1975: Reform and Rural Change
Economic Reform and Gender Roles
After Mao’s death in 1976, Deng Xiaoping’s reforms reshaped rural society through the Household Responsibility System, which returned land-use rights to individual families. This shift revitalised rural economies but also re-privatised some gender inequalities.
Women’s contributions to household farming remained crucial, though often unpaid.
Market reforms encouraged rural industries (TVEs – Township and Village Enterprises) where women found new employment opportunities.
Rising incomes improved living standards but increased disparities between regions and genders.
Education, Migration, and Social Mobility
Improved access to education and healthcare continued to raise women’s status, though rural girls often lagged behind boys in enrolment and attainment. Economic opportunities in urban centres spurred female migration, enabling many rural women to seek work beyond their villages and gain financial independence.
Rural-to-urban migration transformed gender roles and family structures.
Remittances from migrant women contributed to rural household incomes.
Traditional norms persisted in some areas, particularly regarding son preference and inheritance rights.
Gradual Social Change and Continuing Challenges
Between 1839 and 1989, women’s roles in rural China evolved from deeply subordinate positions under Confucian patriarchy to more active and legally empowered roles in socialist society. Despite significant legal reforms and ideological shifts, traditional attitudes often limited the full realisation of gender equality. Rural women continued to face unique challenges due to poverty, conservative customs, and uneven access to resources. Yet their contributions remained vital to China’s social and economic transformation, and their evolving status reflected the broader currents of change across the nation.
FAQ
Foot binding not only limited women’s mobility but also symbolised social status and femininity. Small feet were considered essential for marriage into wealthier families, meaning that women’s futures depended on adherence to this painful custom.
The practice reinforced women’s dependency, as those with bound feet could not easily work in the fields or move independently, confining them to domestic roles. It also perpetuated patriarchal values, presenting women as ornamental and obedient rather than active participants in public life.
Although often overlooked, rural women participated in revolutionary activities, especially in Communist base areas. They:
Assisted guerrilla fighters by transporting supplies and passing on intelligence.
Formed women’s associations to challenge patriarchal practices such as arranged marriage.
Participated in literacy campaigns, improving education in villages.
These roles not only supported revolutionary aims but also gave women new political awareness, laying groundwork for the CCP’s post-1949 reforms.
Collectivisation integrated women into agricultural labour on a larger scale, often for the first time. Women joined work teams, took part in communal decision-making, and were publicly recognised as producers.
However, men often held supervisory roles, and women faced a double burden of fieldwork and domestic tasks. The shift increased their visibility in economic life but did not always translate into genuine equality or leadership opportunities within communes.
Post-1949 education reforms opened primary schools in rural areas, significantly increasing literacy among women. Literacy empowered them to participate more actively in village life, access government programmes, and support their children’s schooling.
However, girls’ education still lagged behind boys’, particularly in poorer regions where families prioritised sons. Despite these limitations, education reform marked a crucial step towards greater gender equality and social mobility.
Economic liberalisation created new opportunities but also revived inequalities. Women’s land-use rights often reverted to male household heads, undermining earlier gains in property control.
Migration for work exposed women to urban employment but also precarious labour conditions
Market competition marginalised women with lower education or skills.
Traditional son preference persisted, influencing inheritance and family planning decisions.
Thus, while reforms brought economic growth, they also highlighted enduring gender disparities in rural China.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name two traditional practices or beliefs that restricted women’s roles in rural China before 1900.
Mark scheme:
Award 1 mark for each correctly identified traditional practice or belief (maximum 2 marks):
Foot binding – the practice of tightly binding girls’ feet to symbolise beauty and submission.
Three Obediences – Confucian principle requiring women to obey father, husband, and son.
Arranged marriage – marriages organised by families with little choice for women.
Preference for sons – sons valued for labour and ancestor worship, leading to female subordination.
(Any two valid examples = 2 marks)
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how Communist policies between 1949 and 1976 changed the status and roles of women in rural China.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks):
Basic statements with limited detail or relevance.
May mention laws or policies without explanation.
Example: “The Communists made men and women equal.”
Level 2 (3–4 marks):
Some explanation of how policies affected women’s roles.
May describe changes in marriage or work but lacks depth or range.
Example: “The Marriage Law of 1950 ended arranged marriages and allowed women to divorce. Women also worked on collective farms.”
Level 3 (5–6 marks):
Clear, detailed explanation of multiple ways Communist policies changed women’s status and roles.
Includes specific policies and their effects on rural life.
May mention both legal equality and economic/social changes.
Example: “The Marriage Law of 1950 abolished arranged marriages and granted women the right to divorce, promoting legal equality. Land reform allowed women to own land, challenging male dominance. Women worked in People’s Communes during collectivisation and took part in production, though they often faced a double burden of work and domestic responsibilities.”
