OCR Specification focus:
‘The Russo-Polish War and Communist advance after the Second World War extended control.’
The Russo-Polish War and the post-1945 Communist expansion were pivotal in shaping Soviet dominance, redefining Eastern Europe’s political landscape and consolidating Moscow’s control over satellite states.
The Russo-Polish War (1919–1921)
The Russo-Polish War was a crucial conflict that emerged from the collapse of empires after the First World War and the Russian Revolution. It shaped the early Soviet state’s western frontiers and influenced later policies towards Eastern Europe.
Background and Origins
Following the disintegration of the Russian, German and Austro-Hungarian Empires, Poland re-emerged as an independent state in November 1918. Its leader, Józef Piłsudski, sought to build a federation of Central and Eastern European nations (known as Intermarium) to counter both German and Russian dominance. Meanwhile, the Bolshevik regime, embroiled in a civil war, aimed to spread the communist revolution westward.
Polish aims: Reclaim historical territories and create a buffer against Russia.
Soviet aims: Push revolutionary ideology into Europe and reclaim territories lost after the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918).
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk: A peace treaty signed in March 1918 between Soviet Russia and the Central Powers, ending Russia’s involvement in the First World War and ceding large territories.
Course of the War
The conflict began in February 1919 with Polish advances into Belarus and Ukraine. As the Red Army gained strength, it launched a counter-offensive in 1920, seeking to capture Warsaw and open a path to Germany for revolutionary expansion.
Polish offensive (April 1920): Piłsudski’s forces captured Kiev, aiming to create a Ukrainian buffer state.
Soviet counter-offensive (summer 1920): The Western Front under Mikhail Tukhachevsky advanced towards Warsaw.
Battle of Warsaw (August 1920): Also known as the “Miracle on the Vistula,” Polish forces repelled the Red Army, reversing the tide of war.
Peace negotiations: Exhaustion and instability on both sides led to talks.
“At the Battle of Warsaw (August 1920), Piłsudski’s counter-offensive outflanked Tukhachevsky’s Western Front, protecting Warsaw and forcing Soviet retreat to the Niemen.”
Map of the Battle of Warsaw (1920) showing axes of Soviet advance and the Polish counter-stroke. It visualises how operations east of the Vistula produced a decisive envelopment. Labels focus on key fronts and river barriers to clarify the battle’s dynamics. Source
Treaty of Riga (1921) and Outcomes
The war ended with the Treaty of Riga in March 1921, which divided disputed territories between Poland and Soviet Russia.
Poland gained large parts of Belarus and Ukraine, pushing its border significantly eastward.
Soviet ambitions for immediate revolutionary expansion into Europe were halted.
The war deepened hostility between Poland and the USSR, influencing later Soviet policy.
“The Treaty of Riga (March 1921) fixed a Polish–Soviet frontier some ~250 km east of the Curzon Line, incorporating millions of Ukrainians and Belarusians into Poland.”
Vector map highlighting the Curzon Line and the interwar Polish–Soviet border established by Riga (1921). It clarifies the distance between the recommended Allied line and the actual frontier. Source
The outcome demonstrated the limits of early Soviet power projection but also taught the Bolsheviks the importance of consolidating control before external expansion — a lesson applied after 1945.
Post-1945 Communist Advance and Soviet Expansion
The end of the Second World War marked a turning point in Soviet foreign policy. Stalin seized the opportunity presented by the defeat of Nazi Germany to expand Soviet influence westwards and create a buffer zone of satellite states.
Soviet Occupation and Political Transformation
The Red Army’s advance into Eastern and Central Europe (1944–45) was decisive. Liberation from Nazi occupation was swiftly followed by Soviet military presence and political restructuring.
The USSR established “friendly” governments across Eastern Europe, often through rigged elections, intimidation, and purges.
Local communist parties, supported by Soviet advisers, took control of key ministries, particularly interior, defence, and security.
Opposition parties were marginalised or forcibly merged with communist organisations.
Satellite State: A formally independent nation that is politically, economically, and militarily dominated by another state, particularly referring to Eastern European states under Soviet influence after 1945.
Poland’s Post-War Experience
Poland’s fate after 1945 was shaped by its wartime suffering and geopolitical location. Stalin was determined that Poland would never again be a bridge for Western invasion.
Provisional Government of National Unity (1945): Established under Soviet pressure, including some non-communist members but dominated by communists.
Rigged elections (1947): The Polish United Workers’ Party (PZPR) secured control amid intimidation and fraud
Land reform and nationalisation: Rapid redistribution of land and industries aimed to dismantle traditional elites and integrate Poland into the socialist model.
Security apparatus: The creation of a powerful secret police (UB) ensured suppression of dissent and enforcement of Soviet policies.
Wider Communist Advance in Eastern Europe
Soviet influence extended beyond Poland, reshaping the region’s political geography and reinforcing Moscow’s dominance:
East Germany (GDR, 1949): Formed from the Soviet occupation zone, governed by the Socialist Unity Party (SED).
Czechoslovakia (1948): A communist coup overthrew a coalition government, consolidating Soviet control.
Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria: Communist regimes were established between 1945 and 1948 through a combination of elections, coups, and Soviet military support.
Baltic States: Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were fully incorporated into the USSR as Soviet republics by 1940 and remained so after 1945.
This wave of expansion created the Eastern Bloc, a group of states bound by Warsaw Pact membership, economic coordination through Comecon, and ideological subservience to Moscow.
“After 1945, Soviet military occupation enabled the creation of a Soviet ‘buffer zone’, institutionalised through Cominform (1947) and the Warsaw Pact (1955).”
A clear post-war Europe map showing the divide between Warsaw Pact members and NATO states—the practical outcome of the USSR’s post-1945 advance. This visual situates Poland within the Eastern bloc. Note: the NATO side is included for contextual clarity beyond the OCR wording. Source
Strategic Aims and Consequences of Soviet Expansion
The Soviet advance after 1945 was driven by several key strategic and ideological considerations:
Security: The USSR sought a buffer zone to protect itself from future invasions from the West, following devastating losses in two world wars.
Ideology: Stalin aimed to consolidate communist rule and demonstrate socialism’s superiority over capitalism.
Power projection: Control over Eastern Europe strengthened the USSR’s global position in the emerging Cold War.
This expansion had profound consequences:
Bipolar world order: Europe was divided into capitalist and communist spheres, laying the foundation for the Cold War.
Suppression of opposition: Nationalist and democratic movements were crushed, often brutally, across the region.
Economic transformation: Command economies were imposed, integrating satellite states into Soviet economic planning.
Continuities and Changes from the Russo-Polish War to Post-1945
The Russo-Polish War and post-1945 Soviet expansion reveal both continuities and changes in Russian and Soviet approaches to empire and control.
Continuity: Both periods demonstrate a persistent strategic aim to secure Russia’s western frontier and prevent hostile powers from threatening its core territory.
Change: While the Bolsheviks failed to export revolution in 1920–21, the post-1945 context — with Soviet military occupation and geopolitical leverage — enabled successful expansion.
Long-term impact: The bitterness of the 1921 Treaty of Riga influenced Stalin’s post-war policies, leading to the incorporation of much of interwar Poland into the Belarusian and Ukrainian SSRs and the westward shift of Poland’s borders.
The Soviet Union thus achieved after 1945 what it had failed to do after 1921: a dominant, ideologically aligned sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, marking a profound transformation in the region’s political landscape.
FAQ
Foreign involvement was significant but limited in scale. France and Britain, wary of Bolshevik expansion, provided diplomatic support and military advisers to Poland, with France sending a mission under General Maxime Weygand. Western governments also pressured both sides to accept the Curzon Line as a potential peace border.
Germany remained largely neutral due to post-war instability, while the Baltic states sometimes acted as intermediaries. However, no major power committed significant troops, leaving Poland and Soviet Russia to decide the outcome primarily through their own military and political efforts.
The defeat in 1920 taught the Bolsheviks that ideological ambition alone could not guarantee success. As a result:
The Red Army emphasised discipline, logistics, and central coordination, lessons applied during the Second World War.
Soviet leaders prioritised internal consolidation and state-building before pursuing expansion abroad.
Moscow adopted a longer-term approach, using political subversion and occupation, rather than relying solely on revolutionary momentum.
These lessons influenced Stalin’s cautious but strategic expansion into Eastern Europe after 1945.
Poland’s geographic location made it a critical buffer between the Soviet Union and Western Europe. Historically a route for invasions (notably Napoleon in 1812 and Nazi Germany in 1941), its control was essential for Soviet security planning.
A Soviet-aligned Poland provided a defensive shield against NATO and Western influence.
It also offered a launch point for projecting power into Central Europe.
Control over Poland enabled the USSR to influence communication, trade, and military routes across the region.
This strategic significance explains Stalin’s determination to keep Poland firmly within the Soviet sphere.
Soviet influence fundamentally restructured Polish politics:
Non-communist leaders were intimidated, arrested, or exiled, reducing political pluralism.
Opposition parties were merged or dissolved, often under coercion.
The Polish United Workers’ Party (PZPR) emerged as the dominant force, closely following Moscow’s directives.
Political policing through the Ministry of Public Security (UB) suppressed dissent and eliminated rivals.
By the early 1950s, Poland functioned as a one-party state, with limited autonomy and policies aligned with Soviet priorities.
The post-1945 Soviet advance created lasting political, economic, and cultural changes:
The Eastern Bloc emerged as a cohesive group of socialist states, formalised by the Warsaw Pact (1955) and Comecon (1949).
Economies were reorganised under central planning, prioritising heavy industry and collectivised agriculture.
Political dissent was systematically suppressed, with uprisings in Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968) crushed by Soviet intervention.
Cultural life became subject to censorship and ideological conformity.
These effects endured into the late 1980s, shaping Cold War dynamics and delaying democratic transitions until the collapse of the Soviet Union.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What was the Treaty of Riga (1921), and how did it affect the borders between Poland and Soviet Russia?
Mark scheme (2 marks total):
1 mark for identifying that the Treaty of Riga ended the Russo-Polish War (1919–1921).
1 mark for explaining that it established a new border, granting Poland significant territory in Belarus and Ukraine, pushing the frontier ~250 km east of the Curzon Line.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how Soviet influence in Eastern Europe changed after the Second World War compared to the period immediately following the Russo-Polish War.
Mark scheme (6 marks total):
1–2 marks: Limited description of events with little comparison, e.g. mentioning the Russo-Polish War and Soviet expansion after 1945 without detail.
3–4 marks: Clear explanation of developments in both periods, e.g. Soviet aims to spread revolution in 1919–21, the failure at Warsaw, and the successful creation of satellite states after 1945.
5–6 marks: Detailed explanation with explicit comparison, e.g.:
After the Russo-Polish War, Soviet ambitions to export revolution westward were halted by defeat and the Treaty of Riga, limiting territorial gains.
After 1945, the USSR successfully expanded its political and ideological control by creating a buffer zone of satellite states through military occupation and political manipulation.
Answers may also mention Cominform (1947), the Warsaw Pact (1955), and how Soviet control was consolidated through rigged elections and suppression of opposition.
