OCR Specification focus:
‘Feminism’s rise met opposition; Roe v. Wade (1973) reframed rights.’
The period from the 1960s to the 1980s saw the resurgence of feminism in the USA, culminating in legal milestones like Roe v. Wade and provoking significant opposition.
The Rise of Second-Wave Feminism
The second wave of feminism emerged in the 1960s, distinct from earlier suffrage-focused activism. It broadened aims beyond voting rights to encompass social, economic, legal, and reproductive equality. This movement arose amid broader social change: the civil rights movement, student protests, and shifting cultural attitudes challenged traditional hierarchies.
Key Aims and Priorities
Equality in employment and education
Reproductive rights, including access to contraception and abortion
The dismantling of patriarchal structures in law and society
Legal reforms to end gender discrimination
Patriarchy: A social system in which men hold primary power, predominating in roles of leadership, moral authority, and control of property.
Influential Feminist Figures and Organisations
Betty Friedan: Her 1963 book The Feminine Mystique exposed the dissatisfaction of many suburban housewives, catalysing feminist consciousness.
National Organization for Women (NOW), founded in 1966, campaigned for legal and workplace equality.
Gloria Steinem and others used media and activism to challenge sexism and promote feminist ideals.
By the late 1960s, feminist groups were lobbying for legislative change and pursuing legal challenges to discriminatory laws.
Women’s Liberation demonstrators march from Farragut Square to Lafayette Park on 26 August 1970. The photograph captures the public face of second-wave feminism: coordinated protest, clear signage, and a national stage. This visual reinforces how grassroots activism propelled legal and policy change. Source
Legal Developments and Feminist Gains
Feminists targeted the legal system as a key battleground. Landmark legislation and court decisions transformed women’s rights.
Title IX and Educational Equality
Title IX of the Education Amendments (1972) prohibited sex discrimination in federally funded education, dramatically increasing women’s participation in higher education and sports.
The Equal Rights Amendment (ERA)
Proposed in 1972, the ERA aimed to guarantee constitutional equality of the sexes. Although it passed Congress, it fell short of state ratification by 1982, largely due to organised opposition.
Roe v. Wade (1973) and Reproductive Rights
A pivotal moment in feminist history was the Supreme Court’s decision in Roe v. Wade (1973), which dramatically reshaped women’s rights in the United States.
Background to the Case
Before Roe, abortion laws were state-controlled, often restrictive, forcing many women into unsafe illegal procedures. Feminists argued that control over reproduction was essential for personal autonomy and equality.
The Supreme Court Decision
In Roe v. Wade, the Court ruled 7–2 that a woman’s right to choose an abortion was protected under the Fourteenth Amendment’s Due Process Clause, which guarantees a right to privacy.
Due Process Clause: A constitutional provision that prohibits states from depriving individuals of life, liberty, or property without fair legal procedures, interpreted to include privacy rights.
The decision established a trimester framework:
First trimester: The state could not restrict abortion.
Second trimester: The state could regulate abortions in ways related to maternal health.
Third trimester: States could restrict or ban abortions except when necessary to preserve the mother’s life or health.
This ruling reframed reproductive rights, granting women unprecedented legal control over their bodies and aligning with feminist aims of autonomy and equality.
Opposition to Feminism and Roe v. Wade
The rise of feminism and landmark decisions like Roe provoked significant opposition from political, religious, and social groups, shaping the national debate.
Conservative and Religious Backlash
The New Right, emerging in the 1970s, mobilised against feminist goals.
Phyllis Schlafly, a leading organiser of the STOP ERA campaign, protests outside the White House on 4 February 1977. The badge and assembled demonstrators symbolise the strategic, media-savvy resistance that helped derail ERA ratification. This image anchors the section on growing political and religious opposition. Source
Influential figures such as Phyllis Schlafly argued that feminism undermined family values and traditional gender roles. Schlafly’s STOP ERA campaign portrayed the amendment as a threat to motherhood, family life, and even women’s safety (e.g., claims it would lead to women being drafted into the military).
Religious groups, especially evangelical Christians and the Catholic Church, condemned Roe v. Wade as immoral. They framed abortion as the taking of human life, fuelling the pro-life movement, which became a powerful political force.
Political Realignment and the “Culture Wars”
Opposition to feminism became central to a broader conservative resurgence. Republican leaders, notably Ronald Reagan, aligned with religious conservatives, integrating anti-abortion and traditional family values into their platforms. This alliance reshaped U.S. politics, polarising debates over women’s rights and contributing to the enduring “culture wars.”
Feminist Strategies in the Face of Opposition
Feminists responded to backlash with legal, political, and cultural strategies.
Legal Defence and Expansion of Rights
Feminist lawyers and organisations defended Roe in subsequent court challenges, such as Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992), which upheld Roe’s core principle but allowed more state regulation.
Litigation also expanded women’s rights in employment, education, and sexual harassment law.
Political Mobilisation
Feminists campaigned for pro-choice legislation at state and federal levels.
They forged alliances with civil rights and labour movements to broaden their support base.
Advocacy extended into electoral politics, with women’s groups endorsing candidates supportive of feminist goals.
Cultural Influence
Feminists used media, literature, and education to challenge stereotypes and reshape cultural expectations of gender roles.
The women’s liberation movement fostered grassroots activism, consciousness-raising groups, and alternative institutions such as women’s health clinics.
Broader Impact and Legacy
Despite opposition, the feminist movement achieved significant legal and social change. Roe v. Wade symbolised women’s autonomy and influenced global debates on reproductive rights. Feminism reshaped employment, education, and family law, laying foundations for ongoing struggles over gender equality.
Yet the persistent opposition — rooted in religion, politics, and social conservatism — ensured that reproductive rights and feminist aims remained contested. The debates sparked in the 1970s continue to shape U.S. law and politics, illustrating both the achievements and limitations of feminism during this transformative era.
FAQ
First-wave feminism, dominant from the mid-19th century to the 1920s, focused mainly on legal equality, especially the right to vote.
Second-wave feminism, emerging in the 1960s, broadened its aims to challenge systemic gender inequality across society. It emphasised:
Reproductive rights, including access to contraception and abortion.
Workplace equality, including equal pay and opportunities.
Cultural change, challenging stereotypes and patriarchal norms.
It also adopted new strategies, such as consciousness-raising groups, direct action, legal challenges, and collaboration with civil rights movements, making it a more expansive and socially transformative movement.
Media coverage shaped public understanding of feminism, both advancing and undermining its goals.
Magazines and television amplified feminist voices, with figures like Gloria Steinem using publications such as Ms. magazine to reach wider audiences.
Coverage of protests, campaigns, and landmark cases brought feminist issues into mainstream debate.
However, media often trivialised or mocked feminist activists, portraying them as radical or anti-family, which fed into conservative backlash.
Thus, the media was a double-edged sword: crucial for spreading ideas but also a battleground over how feminism was perceived.
Although passed by Congress in 1972, the ERA fell short of the 38 state ratifications needed by the 1982 deadline.
Key reasons include:
Effective opposition, led by Phyllis Schlafly’s STOP ERA campaign, which argued the amendment threatened traditional gender roles, family life, and women’s protections.
Shifting political climate, with the rise of the New Right and conservative resurgence, which reframed feminism as socially disruptive.
Concerns over federal overreach, as opponents feared it would empower courts to mandate gender neutrality in areas like the draft or family law.
These factors eroded bipartisan support and halted momentum before ratification.
Roe v. Wade transformed abortion from a legal issue into a central political dividing line.
Republicans capitalised on opposition to the ruling to mobilise religious conservatives and family-values voters, reshaping the party’s base.
Democrats increasingly defended reproductive rights, aligning with feminist groups and pro-choice advocacy.
This polarisation entrenched abortion as a key “culture war” issue and contributed to the long-term ideological realignment of both parties, influencing voter coalitions and policy priorities for decades.
The decision had global implications, influencing debates and legal changes on abortion worldwide.
It became a reference point for courts and lawmakers in countries considering liberalising abortion laws, such as Canada and parts of Western Europe.
International feminist movements cited Roe as evidence that reproductive rights were essential to gender equality.
Conversely, it also energised anti-abortion movements abroad, inspiring similar campaigns against legal reform.
Thus, Roe’s legacy extended well beyond U.S. borders, shaping reproductive rights discourse globally.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the significance of the Supreme Court case Roe v. Wade (1973) for the women’s rights movement in the United States?
Mark scheme (2 marks total):
1 mark for identifying that Roe v. Wade established a woman’s constitutional right to choose an abortion based on the right to privacy.
1 mark for explaining that this ruling advanced women’s reproductive rights and autonomy, a central goal of second-wave feminism.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how feminist aims and the opposition they faced shaped debates over women’s rights in the 1970s.
Mark scheme (6 marks total):
1 mark for identifying a key aim of the feminist movement (e.g. reproductive rights, workplace equality, legal equality).
1 mark for reference to the significance of Roe v. Wade (1973) in reframing women’s reproductive rights.
1 mark for explaining how legal reforms like Title IX or the proposed Equal Rights Amendment reflected feminist objectives.
1 mark for describing organised opposition (e.g. New Right, Phyllis Schlafly, STOP ERA campaign) and its arguments.
1 mark for noting the role of religious groups and the emergence of the pro-life movement.
1 mark for explaining how this opposition shaped political and cultural debates, including the development of the “culture wars.”
