OCR Specification focus:
‘New Imperialism (c.1875–1914) and the imperialism of free trade reshaped control.’
Between c.1875 and 1914, Britain shifted from informal economic dominance to a new wave of imperial expansion, reshaping its global control through power, competition, and trade.
The Nature and Context of New Imperialism
The Global Setting after 1875
By the late 19th century, industrialisation, nationalism, and international rivalry created conditions ripe for a renewed phase of empire-building. This era, known as New Imperialism, saw Britain and other European powers intensify their colonial expansion, particularly in Africa and Asia, in pursuit of strategic, economic, and political goals.
New Imperialism: A period from c.1875 to 1914 characterised by an accelerated and more aggressive expansion of European empires, marked by formal annexation, intensified competition, and direct state involvement.
While Britain had previously favoured informal empire — extending influence through trade, treaties, and local elites — this period witnessed an increased shift towards formal empire, involving annexation and direct administration.
Causes and Motivations for New Imperialism
Economic Drivers
The late 19th century saw rapid industrial growth and heightened demand for resources and markets. Key economic motivations included:
Raw materials: Industrialisation created a need for commodities like cotton, rubber, copper, and palm oil.
Markets for goods: Colonies provided captive markets for British manufactured goods.
Investment opportunities: Surplus capital from British financiers, often described as ‘gentlemanly capitalism’, sought safe and profitable outlets abroad.
Gentlemanly Capitalism: A theory that British imperial expansion was driven by the interests of the financial, banking, and service elites in London, who influenced state policy to support overseas investment.
However, economic motives were intertwined with political and strategic concerns, and not all territories acquired during this period were economically valuable.
Strategic and Political Considerations
Global rivalry intensified in the late 19th century, especially with the rise of Germany, France, and later Italy and Belgium as imperial powers. British policymakers sought to:
Secure vital trade routes, such as the Suez Canal (acquired influence from 1875).
Protect the route to India, the “jewel in the crown” of the empire.
Maintain naval dominance by controlling key ports and coaling stations.
The ‘Scramble for Africa’ exemplified how strategic fears of rival powers prompted rapid annexations, even in regions with limited immediate economic appeal.
Side-by-side maps of Africa in 1880 and 1913 illustrate the rapid partition of the continent by European powers during the Scramble for Africa. The comparison highlights the contraction of independent polities and the emergence of large colonial blocs. This visual supports analysis of rivalry, the Berlin framework, and the tempo of annexation. Source
Ideological and Cultural Motives
Imperialism was also justified through ideologies such as:
Social Darwinism: The belief that stronger nations were destined to dominate weaker peoples.
The ‘civilising mission’: A paternalistic view that Britain had a duty to bring Christianity, education, and Western governance to colonised societies.
National prestige: Empire was seen as a measure of Britain’s global standing.
Mechanisms and Features of New Imperialism
Formal Empire and Territorial Expansion
Unlike earlier phases, New Imperialism involved direct state action and territorial annexation. Britain consolidated its empire through:
Protectorates: Areas where local rulers retained nominal power under British oversight (e.g. Egypt after 1882).
Crown colonies: Territories under direct British rule (e.g. parts of southern Africa).
Dominions: Settler colonies with increasing self-government (e.g. Canada, Australia).
The British Empire grew significantly during this era, with vast territories in Africa, the Pacific, and parts of Asia added to imperial control.
Technological and Military Advancements
New technologies underpinned this expansion:
Steamships and the telegraph allowed faster communication and transport.
A 1901 chart of the Eastern Telegraph Company’s submarine cable routes shows the infrastructure that linked Britain to its colonies and trading partners. Dense transoceanic lines demonstrate how messages could be relayed across the empire within hours. The map includes global cables beyond strictly British lines, offering broader context for imperial communications. Source
Maxim guns and modern rifles gave imperial armies decisive advantages over indigenous forces.
A U.S. Army crew operates a Maxim machine gun on a tripod during 1911 manoeuvres. The weapon’s sustained automatic fire exemplified the technological edge that underpinned late-nineteenth-century imperial warfare. While this image is American, it depicts the same gun type widely adopted by European empires, including Britain. Source
Medical advances such as quinine reduced mortality from tropical diseases, enabling deeper penetration into Africa.
Free-Trade Imperialism: The Other Face of Empire
Despite the trend toward formal empire, free-trade imperialism remained central to Britain’s global influence. This approach relied on economic dominance without formal annexation.
Free-Trade Imperialism: A form of imperialism in which a state exerts influence through economic means — trade, investment, and financial control — without direct political rule.
Key features included:
Use of informal empire to maintain British dominance in Latin America, China, and the Ottoman Empire.
Establishment of unequal treaties, such as those with China after the Opium Wars, granting trade privileges and extraterritorial rights.
Heavy investment in foreign infrastructure, such as railways and ports, which tied local economies to British interests.
Free-trade imperialism allowed Britain to benefit from global influence without the costs of governance. It also complemented formal empire by extending British power into regions where direct rule was impractical or undesirable.
Interplay Between New Imperialism and Free-Trade Imperialism
Britain’s imperial strategy between 1875 and 1914 combined both formal expansion and informal economic control. In some cases, informal influence evolved into formal rule — as in Egypt, where financial control led to military occupation in 1882. Elsewhere, Britain maintained informal dominance to avoid diplomatic conflict or financial burdens.
The balance between these forms of empire was shaped by:
Local conditions: Weak states often succumbed to informal control, while unstable regions prompted annexation.
Strategic pressures: Fear of rival powers could push Britain towards formal rule.
Economic opportunities: Profitable trade could sustain informal influence without annexation.
Impact and Consequences of New Imperialism
Global Power Dynamics
New Imperialism altered the global balance of power:
It intensified imperial rivalries, contributing to the tensions that led to the First World War.
The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) formalised the partition of Africa and set rules for colonial competition.
Britain emerged as the largest colonial power, but its dominance faced increasing challenges from rising empires.
Effects on Colonised Societies
The expansion of British rule had profound effects:
Restructuring of local economies to serve imperial interests.
Introduction of Western political and legal systems.
Disruption of indigenous societies and imposition of foreign authority.
Meanwhile, the ideology of empire shaped British identity and global self-image, reinforcing a belief in Britain’s civilising mission and world leadership.
FAQ
The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) formalised the rules of colonial expansion in Africa, requiring powers to demonstrate “effective occupation” before claiming territory.
For Britain, this shifted the focus from informal influence to tangible control, prompting rapid annexations to secure trade routes and resources. It also reduced direct conflict with rival powers by clarifying boundaries, though competition remained intense.
The conference encouraged Britain to consolidate strategic areas like Egypt and parts of East Africa, even where immediate economic gain was limited, to prevent rival occupation.
Private companies often spearheaded expansion, particularly in regions where the British government was initially reluctant to intervene directly.
Chartered companies like the British South Africa Company (founded by Cecil Rhodes) and the Imperial British East Africa Company acted as agents of empire, negotiating treaties, exploiting resources, and administering territories.
These companies provided a cost-effective way to expand influence while limiting state expenditure.
In many cases, failing company administrations were later taken over by the British government, transitioning informal commercial presence into formal colonial rule.
Latin America remained outside formal British control, yet it was a vital sphere of informal empire. After independence from Spain and Portugal, many Latin American states relied heavily on British finance, technology, and trade.
Britain dominated sectors like railways, mining, and shipping, embedding its economic power without territorial conquest.
British merchants and banks influenced local policies and infrastructure, integrating these economies into global trade networks centred on Britain.
This model exemplified free-trade imperialism, demonstrating that Britain could exert significant influence without annexation.
Public opinion helped shape and sustain imperial policy during the late 19th century.
Jingoism, a fervent pro-imperial patriotism, surged during imperial conflicts like the Boer War, pressuring politicians to expand and defend the empire.
Popular newspapers and exhibitions celebrated imperial achievements, portraying expansion as a national mission.
Public support made imperialism a tool for political gain, with governments using it to demonstrate strength and prestige.
This domestic enthusiasm often legitimised costly or controversial expansions that might otherwise have faced parliamentary resistance.
Technological advances transformed Britain’s imperial capabilities and strategies.
Weaponry: The Maxim gun allowed small forces to defeat larger indigenous armies, enabling rapid conquest.
Transport: Steamships shortened travel times, ensuring troops and goods could be moved quickly across vast distances.
Communication: Telegraph cables created near-instant links between London and colonial administrators, allowing coordinated governance.
Together, these technologies gave Britain overwhelming strategic advantages, enabling both swift military campaigns and tighter administrative control across the empire.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Define the term ‘New Imperialism’ in the context of British expansion between c.1875 and 1914.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying that New Imperialism refers to the intensified phase of European imperial expansion between c.1875 and 1914.
1 mark for mentioning key features such as formal annexation, heightened competition, or direct state involvement.
(Example full answer: “New Imperialism refers to the intensified phase of European empire-building between about 1875 and 1914, marked by direct state control and formal annexation.”)
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why Britain expanded its empire during the period of New Imperialism between c.1875 and 1914.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each reason explained clearly and with relevant detail.
1 mark for identifying a valid reason.
1 mark for elaborating on that reason with supporting explanation.
1 mark for linking the reason specifically to Britain’s imperial actions during 1875–1914.
Indicative content:
Economic motivations: Britain sought new markets, raw materials, and investment opportunities for surplus capital, supporting industrial growth.
Strategic and political concerns: Expansion secured trade routes (e.g. Suez Canal), protected India, and maintained naval dominance amid rivalry with powers such as Germany and France.
Ideological motives: Ideas like Social Darwinism and the ‘civilising mission’ justified expansion as Britain’s duty to ‘improve’ other societies.
(Example full answer: “One reason was economic. Britain’s industrial growth created demand for raw materials such as cotton and rubber, as well as new markets for manufactured goods. Colonies also provided opportunities for investment. Another reason was strategic. Britain sought to secure key trade routes like the Suez Canal and protect the route to India while competing with rival powers such as Germany and France.”)
