57.3.4 Britain: Opinion and Representation

OCR Specification focus:
‘Jingoism, indifference, exhibitions, school texts and youth movements shaped opinion.’

British imperial expansion profoundly shaped domestic opinion and cultural life between 1857 and 1965, influencing public attitudes, political debate, education, and representations of empire in Britain.

Shaping Public Opinion: Jingoism and National Identity

Jingoism and Popular Imperialism

Jingoism – a term coined from a patriotic music hall song during the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) – refers to aggressive, populist support for imperial expansion and foreign policy.

Term: Jingoism – Exaggerated patriotism and nationalist fervour, often advocating assertive or warlike imperial policies, especially popular in late 19th-century Britain.

By the late Victorian era, jingoism was a significant element of British culture:

William Barnes Wollen’s “Meeting of Jingoes in Guildhall, London (1878)” depicts a raucous, pro-Empire gathering during the Eastern Crisis. It captures the emotive crowds and oratory that underpinned popular imperialism in late-Victorian Britain. The image visualises how mass meetings generated pressure for assertive imperial policy. Source

Press campaigns promoted imperial adventures as heroic, portraying colonial wars as moral duties. Newspapers such as The Daily Mail sensationalised imperial victories and vilified resistance.
Public celebrations of imperial events, including Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee (1897), fused monarchy, empire, and national pride.
Music halls and songs encouraged imperial enthusiasm among the working classes, spreading patriotic sentiment beyond the elite.

This imperial fervour fostered a sense of national mission and unity, portraying Britain as a civilising force and reinforcing racial hierarchies underpinning imperial ideology.

Indifference and Anti-Imperial Sentiment

Despite the dominance of jingoistic rhetoric, indifference to empire remained widespread. Many Britons prioritised domestic issues such as industrialisation, urban poverty, and social reform over imperial affairs.

Working-class populations often had little direct connection to empire, and imperial issues rarely featured in local politics.
Some intellectuals and politicians, including members of the Liberal Party, criticised imperialism on moral or economic grounds. Figures like J.A. Hobson argued that empire benefited only capitalist elites and diverted attention from social reform.
The Labour movement often opposed imperial wars and exploitation, linking anti-imperialism with class struggle.

This mixture of enthusiasm and apathy produced a complex public landscape, where empire could be both glorified and ignored.

Empire in Public Culture: Exhibitions and Displays

Imperial Exhibitions and the British Worldview

Large-scale imperial exhibitions played a vital role in shaping British perceptions of empire by making distant colonies tangible and showcasing imperial achievements.

British Empire Exhibition, Wembley (1924): Entrance gate, India Pavilion. Such vistas choreographed a flattering narrative of order, abundance and collaboration across the empire. The architecture and heraldic motifs exemplify how exhibitions staged imperial unity for metropolitan audiences. Source

Key examples include:

Colonial and Indian Exhibition (1886, London): Displayed colonial products, artefacts, and peoples, highlighting Britain’s global reach.
Franco-British Exhibition (1908, London): Attracted millions, featuring reconstructed colonial villages and industrial displays that celebrated imperial power.
Empire Exhibition (1924, Wembley): Promoted economic collaboration within the empire and presented colonies as integral parts of Britain’s destiny.

These exhibitions:

Reinforced ideas of racial hierarchy and paternalism, often portraying colonised peoples as exotic or childlike.
Linked empire to technological progress and modernity, emphasising Britain’s role as a global leader.
Provided a form of mass entertainment, shaping how ordinary Britons visualised imperial spaces and peoples.

Such spectacles embedded empire within popular consciousness and affirmed Britain’s imperial identity at home.

Education and the Imperial Imagination

School Textbooks and Curricula

Formal education was a key mechanism through which imperial values were transmitted. From the late 19th century, school textbooks and curricula presented empire as a central part of British history and identity.

Textbooks glorified explorers, administrators, and military leaders such as Clive of India, Cecil Rhodes, and General Gordon.
The empire was depicted as a civilising mission, spreading Christianity, commerce, and progress.
Colonial peoples were often portrayed as passive recipients of British benevolence, reinforcing imperial ideologies of racial superiority.

These materials taught that imperial rule was both natural and beneficial, shaping the worldview of generations of British students.

Universities and the Imperial Elite

Higher education institutions also contributed to imperial ideology. Universities such as Oxford and Cambridge offered courses in colonial administration, producing the imperial elite who would govern overseas territories.

Institutions fostered a sense of duty and service to the empire, embedding imperial values in Britain’s ruling classes.
Networks formed at universities often facilitated careers in the Indian Civil Service or Colonial Office, linking education directly to imperial governance.

Through both elementary and higher education, empire became a central narrative in British self-perception.

Youth Movements and Imperial Citizenship

Scouting, Guiding and Imperial Duty

Youth movements emerged as powerful tools for shaping attitudes toward empire and instilling imperial citizenship.

The Boy Scouts, founded by Robert Baden-Powell in 1907, emphasised discipline, service, and loyalty to king and empire.
The Girl Guides, established in 1910, encouraged imperial ideals of duty and domesticity.
These movements promoted imperial patriotism, preparing young Britons to contribute to imperial projects, whether through governance, missionary work, or military service.

Activities such as saluting the Union Jack, learning about colonial peoples, and reading imperial adventure stories reinforced the notion that Britain’s global mission was honourable and righteous.

Imperial Propaganda and Youth Literature

Children’s literature and youth magazines also conveyed imperialist themes. Works by authors such as G.A. Henty and Rudyard Kipling portrayed empire as an arena of adventure and moral duty.

Stories glorified imperial conquest and depicted colonial peoples as needing British leadership.
These narratives taught that empire was an integral part of British greatness and individual purpose.

By targeting the young, imperial propaganda ensured that support for empire would endure into the future.

The Press, Media, and Mass Representation

Newspapers and Public Debate

The expanding press played a crucial role in shaping imperial opinion. Newspapers provided extensive coverage of colonial events, often framed to promote imperialism:

Campaigns during the Boer War (1899–1902) stirred patriotic support, portraying British troops as liberators and Boer resistance as barbaric.
Imperial crises, such as the Indian Rebellion of 1857, were reported in sensational terms, emphasising British heroism and justifying harsh reprisals.

The press acted as a powerful tool of imperial propaganda, influencing public attitudes and reinforcing state policies.

Visual Culture: Posters, Art and Cinema

Visual media complemented textual representations of empire.

Posters and paintings depicted imperial soldiers and monarchs surrounded by colonial subjects, symbolising Britain’s global authority.
Early films and newsreels brought imperial wars and ceremonies into cinemas, creating a shared imperial experience for mass audiences.
Art exhibitions and museum displays often presented empire as a story of British scientific and moral progress.

These cultural products normalised empire in everyday life, embedding it into the visual landscape of British society.

Empire and Political Representation

Political Parties and Imperial Policy

Public opinion, shaped by media, education, and culture, influenced political discourse.

The Conservative Party embraced imperialism as a unifying cause, promoting “imperial preference” in trade and expansionist policies.
The Liberal Party was divided, with “New Liberals” like Joseph Chamberlain advocating imperial unity, while others opposed imperial wars and exploitation.
Labour increasingly linked anti-imperialism to socialism, opposing colonial oppression and advocating self-determination.

Imperial issues often featured in elections, demonstrating how deeply empire permeated political life.

Representation of Colonies in Britain

While the British public shaped imperial policy, colonial voices were largely absent from political representation. Occasional visits by colonial leaders or delegations – such as Indian National Congress representatives – were reported in the press, but colonial perspectives were often filtered through British narratives. The imperial conference system, though significant, remained dominated by white settler colonies, excluding most colonial peoples from meaningful participation.

FAQ

Imperial opinion differed significantly across social classes.

The middle classes, who often benefited from imperial trade and business, were generally strong supporters of empire and consumed imperial news and literature.
The working classes were more divided. Some were drawn into jingoism through popular media and imperial celebrations, while others remained largely indifferent, focusing on domestic concerns such as wages and living conditions.
The elite and political classes saw empire as essential to Britain’s global power and prestige, though debates arose over costs and morality.

These variations meant that while imperialism shaped national identity, enthusiasm for empire was far from universal.

Imperial anniversaries and jubilees served as mass spectacles reinforcing loyalty and pride. Events like Queen Victoria’s Diamond Jubilee (1897) and George V’s Silver Jubilee (1935) combined monarchy and empire into a single national narrative.

Parades, public ceremonies, and imperial displays linked imperial achievements to Britain’s national story.
Newspapers and pamphlets amplified these events, spreading imperial sentiment even among those who did not attend.
Colonial delegations were often present, symbolising unity and legitimising British rule.

Such commemorations helped embed empire in popular consciousness and strengthen imperial identity across society.

Anti-imperialist groups challenged dominant narratives through publications, speeches, and political campaigns. Organisations like the Anti-Slavery Society and the Union of Democratic Control criticised imperial exploitation and advocated for colonial self-determination.

They exposed the economic motives behind imperialism and highlighted injustices such as forced labour and racial discrimination.
Public lectures and pamphlets offered alternative views to those in mainstream media and school textbooks.
Links with trade unions and socialist movements tied anti-imperialism to broader struggles for democracy and workers’ rights.

Although less influential than pro-imperial voices, these groups shaped debates and influenced political attitudes, particularly in the early 20th century.

The world wars reshaped imperial opinion by highlighting both the strengths and vulnerabilities of empire.

Contributions of colonial troops and resources fostered a sense of imperial unity and loyalty, celebrated in the press and public ceremonies.
However, awareness of colonial sacrifices also led to greater demands for self-government, generating sympathy among some Britons for nationalist movements.
Wartime propaganda reinforced imperial values, but post-war realities – including economic decline and rising anti-colonial sentiment – encouraged more critical attitudes.

Thus, wartime experiences deepened imperial pride but also sowed seeds of scepticism about empire’s future.

Cinema offered vivid, visual narratives of empire through newsreels, documentaries, and adventure films, often portraying British rule as heroic and benevolent. Colonial conflicts were dramatised to reinforce racial hierarchies and justify imperial actions.

Radio, meanwhile, brought empire into homes more directly and frequently.

Programmes like the BBC Empire Service (launched in 1932) connected listeners with imperial events and voices from across the empire.
Broadcasts highlighted imperial unity and Britain’s global influence, fostering a shared sense of belonging.

Together, cinema and radio turned imperial ideology into an everyday experience, deepening public engagement with empire beyond print and exhibitions.

Practice Questions

Question 1 (2 marks)
Define the term jingoism in the context of British imperial opinion during the late nineteenth century.

Mark scheme:

1 mark for identifying that jingoism refers to extreme patriotism or nationalist fervour.
1 mark for noting that it is often associated with aggressive or expansionist imperial policy, particularly in late Victorian Britain.

Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how imperial exhibitions and school textbooks influenced public opinion about the British Empire between 1857 and 1965.