OCR Specification focus:
‘The Cold War, the Commonwealth and relations with Europe and the EEC reoriented policy.’
Between 1945 and 1965, Britain’s imperial policy was reshaped by the pressures of the Cold War, the emergence of the Commonwealth, and evolving European integration.
Britain, the Empire and the Cold War World
The onset of the Cold War after 1945 fundamentally transformed Britain’s global role and imperial outlook. As a leading victor of the Second World War, Britain initially sought to maintain its global influence and empire, but new geopolitical realities forced strategic recalibration. The bipolar world order, dominated by the United States and the Soviet Union, limited Britain’s ability to act unilaterally and compelled it to align more closely with American strategic interests.
The Cold War Context and Imperial Strategy
The ideological confrontation between capitalism and communism influenced British imperial policy in several key ways:
Containment: Britain supported American strategies to limit Soviet influence, shaping decisions on colonial governance and decolonisation.
Military alliances: Participation in NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organisation), established in 1949, tied British defence commitments to the Western alliance.
Map of NATO’s founding members (1949) and subsequent enlargements, illustrating the alliance within which Britain anchored its Cold War strategy. Focus on the twelve founding states for this period; later accessions extend beyond the syllabus timeframe and are included for context. Source
Strategic bases: Retaining key imperial outposts such as Aden, Cyprus, and bases in Malaya became essential for projecting power and containing communism in the Middle East and Asia.
Containment: A Cold War strategy pursued by the United States and its allies, including Britain, to prevent the spread of communism beyond its existing borders.
Britain increasingly justified continued presence in some colonies as necessary for Cold War security, portraying imperial control as a bulwark against communist expansion. For example, the Malayan Emergency (1948–1960) was framed as a fight against communist insurgency rather than a purely anti-colonial conflict.
Decolonisation under Cold War Pressures
While the Cold War initially seemed to justify imperial retention, it also accelerated decolonisation:
The United States pressured Britain to grant self-government to avoid pushing nationalist movements towards communism.
Britain sought to transfer power to moderate, pro-Western elites, maintaining influence without direct rule.
New states were encouraged to remain within the Western orbit through Commonwealth membership and military cooperation.
This dual dynamic—imperial persistence for strategic purposes and rapid decolonisation under geopolitical pressure—defined British policy in Africa, Asia and the Middle East.
The Commonwealth: Continuity Amid Change
As empire declined, the Commonwealth emerged as a reimagined structure of influence and cooperation. Originally a loose association of white settler dominions, it expanded into a multiracial organisation of former colonies committed to shared values and voluntary association.
Evolution from Empire to Commonwealth
Key milestones included:
The London Declaration (1949), allowing republics like India to remain members, transforming the Commonwealth from a monarchical club into a modern political association.
Expansion during the 1950s and 1960s, with newly independent states such as Ghana (1957) and Nigeria (1960) joining.
Commonwealth: A voluntary association of sovereign states, most of which were formerly part of the British Empire, cooperating on political, economic and cultural matters.
The Commonwealth served Britain’s strategic and ideological interests:
It projected a narrative of peaceful transition from empire to partnership, countering Soviet critiques of imperialism.
It provided a diplomatic network for Britain, maintaining political and economic ties even after formal empire ended.
It offered a stage for promoting liberal democracy, rule of law, and anti-communist alliances.
However, the Commonwealth was not without tension. Disputes arose over apartheid South Africa, whose departure in 1961 reflected growing divergence in values among member states.
Europe and the End of Imperial Centrality
While the empire had long defined Britain’s global position, the post-war era witnessed a growing awareness of Europe’s economic and political importance. As decolonisation reduced imperial commitments, Britain faced a choice: to deepen its Commonwealth links, strengthen its transatlantic alliance, or embrace European integration.
Britain and Early European Integration
The creation of the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC, 1951) and the European Economic Community (EEC, 1957) signalled a new era of continental cooperation aimed at preventing war and boosting prosperity. Britain initially declined to join, preferring:
To prioritise the Commonwealth and the Sterling Area, a bloc of nations using the pound and linked by trade.
To maintain an independent global role, balancing relationships with the United States and the empire.
Yet economic pressures and relative decline prompted reconsideration. Britain proposed the European Free Trade Association (EFTA) in 1960 as an alternative, but its limited success pushed Britain to seek EEC membership in 1961.
Map of the European Community (the “Inner Six”), 1957–58: France, West Germany, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. This clarifies the continental bloc Britain initially remained outside before seeking entry in 1961. Labels are minimal and legible, keeping the focus on core membership. Source
European Economic Community (EEC): A regional organisation founded in 1957 by six Western European nations to promote economic integration through a common market.
Challenges to European Entry
Britain’s European ambitions faced obstacles:
French President Charles de Gaulle vetoed Britain’s application in 1963, doubting its commitment and fearing American influence.
Concerns over Commonwealth trade preferences and sovereignty limited domestic enthusiasm.
Despite these setbacks, the shift towards Europe reflected a fundamental reorientation of British policy. The empire was no longer the cornerstone of British economic and strategic power; instead, Europe and the Atlantic alliance assumed increasing importance.
Interconnected Themes: Cold War, Commonwealth and Europe
These three forces—Cold War dynamics, Commonwealth transformation, and European integration—were deeply interconnected in shaping British policy from 1945 to 1965.
The Cold War provided both the context and the pressure for imperial withdrawal, as Britain adapted to a bipolar world and sought influence through alliances and diplomacy rather than direct rule.
The Commonwealth offered a means of retaining global connections and projecting soft power even as formal empire ended.
Engagement with Europe marked Britain’s adaptation to a post-imperial world, reflecting new economic realities and strategic priorities.
The result was a profound reorientation of Britain’s global position. By the mid-1960s, Britain was no longer the hub of a vast empire but a medium power seeking influence through alliances, multilateral organisations, and shared institutions. These shifts laid the groundwork for Britain’s subsequent foreign policy debates and its eventual entry into the EEC in 1973.
FAQ
The Suez Crisis revealed Britain’s declining ability to act independently in world affairs. The Anglo-French-Israeli invasion of Egypt, launched without US support, was swiftly condemned internationally and pressured to end by the United States and the United Nations.
This humiliation highlighted Britain’s reliance on American backing within the Cold War order and accelerated its shift from imperial power to junior partner in the Western alliance. It also reinforced the need to seek new avenues of influence, such as deeper ties with Europe and the Commonwealth.
Before 1949, membership of the Commonwealth required allegiance to the British monarch. The London Declaration changed this by allowing republics, such as India, to remain members while recognising the monarch as a symbolic Head of the Commonwealth.
This decision:
Marked the transition from empire to a modern, voluntary association.
Encouraged more newly independent states to join.
Helped Britain maintain diplomatic and economic links despite decolonisation.
Economic concerns were central to Britain’s changing European policy. Post-war recovery and rising European integration highlighted the benefits of shared markets and industrial cooperation.
Britain initially prioritised trade within the Sterling Area and Commonwealth.
Growing competition from the EEC’s common market created pressure to join or risk economic decline.
The 1961 application reflected a pragmatic shift, driven by fears of being left behind economically if excluded from Europe’s expanding market.
Joining the Commonwealth offered political legitimacy and continued access to British trade, expertise, and diplomatic networks. It allowed new nations to maintain ties with Britain while asserting sovereignty.
Many leaders, such as Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, saw membership as a way to balance national independence with international cooperation. The Commonwealth also provided a platform for anti-apartheid advocacy and collective bargaining in global institutions.
De Gaulle believed Britain’s close relationship with the United States meant it could act as a “Trojan horse” for American influence within Europe. He also doubted Britain’s commitment to European integration, given its preference for global ties through the Commonwealth and Atlantic alliance.
Economic concerns played a part too: Britain’s economy was seen as weaker and less aligned with EEC principles. These factors led to the French veto, delaying Britain’s entry until 1973.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Identify two ways in which the Cold War influenced British imperial policy between 1945 and 1965.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correct way identified, up to 2 marks total.
Accept any two of the following or similar points:
Britain aligned more closely with the United States through NATO and containment policies.
Some colonies were retained as strategic bases against communist expansion (e.g., Aden, Malaya).
Decolonisation was accelerated to prevent nationalist movements from turning to communism.
Britain supported pro-Western elites in newly independent states to maintain influence.
Question 2 (5 marks)
Explain how Britain’s relationship with Europe changed in the period 1945–1965.
Mark scheme:
Award up to 5 marks for a well-developed explanation of changing relations.
1–2 marks: Basic awareness of Britain’s relationship with Europe, e.g., mention of the EEC or EFTA without detail.
3–4 marks: Clear explanation of key developments, such as Britain’s initial reluctance to join European integration projects, creation of EFTA, and the 1961 application to join the EEC.
5 marks: Detailed and coherent explanation showing how Britain’s policy shifted from prioritising empire and Commonwealth links to seeking economic and political engagement with Europe, including reasons for de Gaulle’s 1963 veto and its implications.
_Enlargement,_1949-Present.png){kind=link}
