The period from 1655 to 1659 marked a turbulent phase in the English Commonwealth, dominated by the controversial rule of the Major Generals, Cromwell’s policies in Ireland, and the political consequences of his death. This era highlights the difficulties of sustaining republican government without a monarch and reveals the fragile balance between military authority, religious reform, and political legitimacy.

The Rule of the Major Generals (1655–1657)

Background to Military Rule

By 1655, discontent with the Protectorate was mounting. Cromwell, as Lord Protector, faced persistent threats from Royalists, financial strains, and growing divisions among his supporters. The failure of the Western Design (an expedition against Spanish possessions in the Caribbean) had embarrassed the regime, undermining confidence in its foreign policy. The discovery of Penruddock’s Rising in Wiltshire in 1655 — a Royalist insurrection — convinced Cromwell of the need for a more rigorous internal security system.

Establishment of the Major Generals

Cromwell introduced a new form of military government across England and Wales, dividing the nation into eleven regions, each commanded by a Major General.

Map showing the administrative regions governed by Major-Generals during 1655–1657. The shading highlights the territorial scope of military rule, with each region under a separate commander. Source

Their powers were extensive:

• Military security: Suppressing potential Royalist uprisings and enforcing loyalty to the Protectorate.

• Moral reform: Promoting godly behaviour by regulating alehouses, suppressing gambling, and attempting to reduce immorality.

• Tax collection: Implementing the Decimation Tax, a levy on known Royalists to fund local militias.

Public Reaction and Impact

The Major Generals represented an experiment in moral and military authoritarianism. Their actions provoked significant opposition:

• Gentry resented interference in local governance by military outsiders.

• Merchants and tavern-keepers opposed restrictions on leisure and trade.

• Royalists and moderates viewed them as oppressive and unconstitutional.

Although some Major Generals, such as William Goffe, were zealous reformers, others struggled to impose their authority. The policy was widely unpopular and ultimately abandoned in 1657 when Parliament refused to continue funding their operations.

Cromwell in Ireland

Context of Irish Policy

Ireland had been a focus of Cromwell’s military campaigns since 1649. By the mid-1650s, the regime sought to consolidate control and pacify the island through a mixture of military presence and social engineering.

Land Settlement and Religious Policy

Cromwell and his successors aimed to punish Irish Catholics for the 1641 rebellion and their support for Royalist forces:

• Confiscation of land: Catholic landowners were dispossessed and forced to resettle in Connacht or face harsh penalties.

Nineteenth-century map showing areas confiscated and reassigned under the Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland. It highlights the transplantation to Connacht and distribution of land to soldiers and adventurers. Extra labels such as garrisons extend beyond the syllabus but clarify the system’s scope. Source

• Protestant plantations: English and Scottish settlers were granted confiscated land, deepening sectarian divisions.

• Suppression of Catholicism: Catholic clergy were persecuted, and Catholic worship was severely restricted.

The results were devastating for the Irish Catholic population, creating long-lasting resentment that would shape Anglo-Irish relations for centuries.

Military Occupation

Ireland was heavily garrisoned to prevent rebellion. The military presence was costly, but Cromwell regarded it as essential for maintaining English security. Ireland was treated less as a partner in the Commonwealth and more as a colony under English control.

The Death of Oliver Cromwell (1658)

The Protectorate under Strain

By the late 1650s, the Protectorate was in difficulty. While Cromwell had refused the Crown when it was offered to him in 1657, the regime lacked clear constitutional stability. Divisions among Republicans, Army officers, and Civilian reformers undermined unity.

Cromwell’s Death

Oliver Cromwell died on 3 September 1658, a date that coincidentally marked earlier military victories at Dunbar and Worcester.

Wax copy of the death mask of Oliver Cromwell, taken shortly after his death in 1658. It preserves facial features and hair, used for the funeral effigy. The binding visible around the head reflects how such casts were prepared. Source

Succession and Consequences

Cromwell had nominated his son, Richard Cromwell, as his successor. Unlike his father, Richard lacked military experience and the respect of the Army. His inability to control the competing factions of government quickly led to instability. Within months, the Protectorate collapsed, paving the way for political turmoil and eventually the Restoration of Charles II in 1660.

Significance

The era of the Major Generals, Cromwell’s harsh policies in Ireland, and his death collectively highlight the fragility of the English Commonwealth:

• The Major Generals experiment showed the dangers of militarised governance and the limits of enforcing moral reform from above.

• Cromwell’s Irish policy entrenched religious and political divisions that persisted for centuries.

• His death exposed the lack of institutional structures to secure stable succession, underlining the personal nature of his regime.