Urbanisation, crime, and popular unrest in early 18th-century Britain reveal the tensions of a society undergoing rapid demographic and social transformation within a fragile political settlement.

Urbanisation and Social Change

The early 18th century witnessed significant urban development, particularly in London, which grew to become the largest city in Europe with over half a million inhabitants by 1750.

John Rocque’s 1746 plan shows London’s expansion, contrasting dense urban cores with surrounding fields. It highlights the scale of 18th-century urbanisation in Georgian Britain. Source

Other cities such as Bristol, Liverpool, Newcastle, and Glasgow expanded rapidly due to increasing trade, industry, and migration from rural areas. This process of urbanisation (DEFINITION below) altered the social fabric and created new pressures on infrastructure, housing, and governance.

Urban development generated opportunities but also challenges. Housing was often overcrowded, sanitation poor, and public health vulnerable to outbreaks of disease such as smallpox or typhus. Urban poverty was widespread, and distinctions between wealthy merchants and impoverished labourers were stark. This environment became fertile ground for rising crime and unrest.

Crime in Urban Centres

As cities grew, so did fears of disorder and crime. Crime at the time was broadly categorised into property crime, violent crime, and moral crime.

• Property crime was dominant, including theft, burglary, and pickpocketing, reflecting both urban poverty and the lure of consumer goods in a growing market economy.

• Violent crime such as assault and rioting remained common, often associated with taverns, gangs, or political disputes.

• Moral crime such as prostitution and drunkenness was targeted by reformers, reflecting fears over the moral health of society.

The government attempted to control crime through harsh punishments. The Bloody Code — a system of laws that dramatically expanded the number of capital offences — was one such response. Many crimes, even petty theft, became punishable by death, though in practice transportation or public whipping was also used.

Policing and the Judiciary

Formal policing was rudimentary. Cities relied on parish constables, night-watchmen, and local magistrates to enforce order. These systems were often ineffective, poorly funded, and vulnerable to corruption. In London, the Bow Street Runners, established in the 1740s by magistrate Henry Fielding, provided a more organised response, though they remained limited in scope.

The judiciary, dominated by the gentry and local elites, often reflected social hierarchies. Justice was unevenly applied: the wealthy could often evade harsher punishments, while the poor bore the brunt of legal severity.

Popular Unrest

Urban centres also became sites of popular unrest, fuelled by economic hardship, political discontent, and religious tension. Crowds frequently asserted themselves through riots, demonstrations, or public disturbances. These disturbances reveal both grievances and the capacity of ordinary people to influence authority.

The Porteous Riots (1736)

The Porteous Riots in Edinburgh highlight tensions between civic authority and the urban populace. After a smuggler was publicly executed, unrest followed when Captain John Porteous of the city guard ordered troops to fire into the crowd, killing several spectators. Public outrage escalated, and a mob later broke into prison, seizing and lynching Porteous.

James Drummond’s nineteenth-century painting dramatises the Porteous Riots of 1736, illustrating how Edinburgh’s citizens took the law into their own hands after Porteous ordered troops to fire into a crowd. Source

This event illustrates several key dynamics:

• Deep resentment towards state overreach and perceived injustice.

• The ability of mobs to take the law into their own hands.

• Weakness of urban authorities in controlling determined popular movements.

The Gordon Riots (1780)

The Gordon Riots, though at the later end of this period, exemplify the destructive potential of mass protest. Sparked by opposition to the Catholic Relief Act of 1778, which eased restrictions on Catholics, the riots were led by Lord George Gordon’s Protestant Association. Crowds in London swelled to tens of thousands, attacking Catholic chapels, homes, and even prisons.

This 1781 etching shows the Gordon Riots in action, as mobs stormed and burned Newgate Prison while carrying “No Popery” flags. It highlights anti-Catholic sentiment and violent crowd tactics. Source

Key features include:

• Strong anti-Catholic sentiment driving popular unrest.

• Failure of government forces to act swiftly, leading to days of chaos.

• Property destruction and loss of life on a scale that alarmed the political elite.

These riots underscored how religion, politics, and class tensions could intersect in violent ways within urban centres.

Causes of Urban Unrest

Several recurring themes explain why unrest flourished in this period:

• Economic hardship: Rising food prices, unemployment, and poor living conditions in rapidly growing towns fostered resentment.

• Religious tension: Anti-Catholic sentiment remained powerful, while disputes over the Anglican Church’s dominance fuelled division.

• Political exclusion: Limited suffrage and the perception of corruption in government encouraged public demonstration as the only outlet for grievances.

• Weak policing: Ineffective law enforcement allowed crowds to assemble and act with relative impunity until military intervention occurred.

Crowd Action and Political Culture

Crowd action was not always purely destructive. It was also a form of political expression. Popular disturbances could signal dissatisfaction to the ruling elite, who often interpreted such events as warnings. Riots therefore played a role in shaping political culture, ensuring that rulers remained aware of urban discontent.

At the same time, elites both feared and manipulated popular unrest. Politicians sometimes encouraged or exploited mobs for their own purposes, whether in electoral contests or religious campaigns. This duality — fear and manipulation — demonstrates the complex place of popular unrest in Georgian Britain.

The Themes

The Urbanisation, Crime and Popular Unrest highlights the dramatic transformations of 18th-century Britain. Rapid urban growth created conditions of poverty and disorder, prompting fears of crime and unrest. Government responses remained limited and often harsh, while popular protests revealed the agency of ordinary people in challenging authority. The Porteous Riots and the Gordon Riots serve as vivid case studies of the tensions shaping Georgian society.