OCR Specification focus:
‘Hanover and the foreign policies of George I & II; Walpole’s peace and commerce policies, War of Jenkins’ Ear 1739 and war with France 1744; Pitt the Elder and the Seven Years War.’
The Hanoverian monarchs reshaped Britain’s foreign policy, balancing dynastic concerns with national interests, while Walpole, Pitt, and Parliament grappled with commerce, colonial rivalry, and war.
Hanoverian Kings and Foreign Policy
George I and the Hanoverian Priorities
George I ascended the throne in 1714 as the first Hanoverian monarch, and his reign introduced a new dimension to British foreign policy: dynastic commitment to Hanover.
George I prioritised protecting Hanover from European threats, particularly from France and Austria.
British involvement in continental affairs was often shaped by the monarch’s desire to defend his German territories.
This created tension with British politicians, many of whom wished to avoid entanglement in costly continental wars.
George II and Continuity
George II continued this approach. His reign saw:
A strong focus on Hanover’s security, sometimes conflicting with Britain’s wider strategic interests.
Alignment with allies such as Austria, as seen in the War of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748).
Reliance on ministers to mediate between his Hanoverian obligations and Britain’s desire to prioritise commerce and colonial rivalry.
Hanoverian Succession: The establishment of the German House of Hanover as Britain’s ruling dynasty after 1714, ensuring a Protestant monarchy.
The Hanoverian link meant Britain was consistently drawn into continental affairs, even when public opinion was resistant.
Walpole and Peaceful Policies
Walpole’s Leadership
Robert Walpole, Britain’s first de facto prime minister, held power between 1721 and 1742. His foreign policy was defined by caution and commerce.
Walpole avoided major wars, believing that peace best served Britain’s growing trade.
He aimed to strengthen the economy through peace and commerce policies, securing overseas markets while limiting military expenditure.
His diplomacy helped Britain maintain stability during a period of European instability.
Criticism and Weakness
Walpole’s avoidance of war attracted criticism:
Many saw his pacifism as a sign of weakness, especially when British merchants complained of Spanish interference at sea.
The Spanish practice of boarding British ships in search of smugglers provoked outrage and contributed to Walpole’s eventual downfall.
War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739)
Origins
This conflict arose from tensions between Britain and Spain over trade in the Caribbean.
Plan of Portobelo (Panama), showing harbour, forts and the positions of Vernon’s ships during the November 1739 assault. Labels and a key identify defences and anchorages, making the operational picture clear. This focuses the War of Jenkins’ Ear on a concrete campaign that resonated in British politics and public opinion. Source
British merchants claimed Spain restricted their rights under the Treaty of Utrecht (1713).
The famous incident of Captain Robert Jenkins’ severed ear became a symbol of Spanish aggression and spurred calls for war in Parliament.
War of Jenkins’ Ear: A conflict (1739–1748) between Britain and Spain, triggered by disputes over trade rights in the Caribbean and allegations of Spanish naval brutality.
Consequences
Initially intended as a limited naval war, it soon merged into the War of the Austrian Succession.
Demonstrated the fragility of Walpole’s peace-first policy.
Intensified British focus on colonial and commercial rivalry, rather than purely European concerns.
War with France 1744
Expansion of Conflict
By 1744, Britain was fully embroiled in a wider European war against France.
Britain supported Austria against French and Spanish ambitions.
Naval engagements and colonial clashes highlighted the global nature of the conflict.
Political Impact
Walpole resigned in 1742, blamed for failing to protect British trade and honour.
His departure marked a shift towards more aggressive and interventionist strategies.
Britain increasingly recognised that colonial competition with France was unavoidable.
Pitt the Elder and the Seven Years War
Pitt’s Rise
William Pitt the Elder, often known as the "Great Commoner," emerged as the dominant statesman in the 1750s.
He prioritised colonial expansion, naval dominance, and aggressive war against France.
Pitt’s leadership energised the war effort and redefined Britain’s foreign policy objectives.
Seven Years War (1756–1763)
The Seven Years War was the first truly global conflict, fought across Europe, North America, Africa, and Asia.
World locator map showing the coalitions in the Seven Years’ War: Britain-Prussia-Portugal (and allies) versus France-Austria-Russia-Spain-Sweden (and allies). The colour-coded presentation makes the strategic blocs immediately legible. Extra detail beyond the syllabus is minimal and limited to coalition membership. Source
Britain’s strategy centred on using naval superiority to cripple France’s overseas empire.
Key victories included the capture of Quebec (1759) and the conquest of French territories in the Caribbean and India.
Labeled schematic of the British landing routes and positions prior to the Plains of Abraham. It complements the narrative of naval power enabling land success in North America. Extra detail is confined to the approach phase (not the full battle deployment), which is appropriate to show how the victory was set up. Source
Seven Years War: A global conflict (1756–1763) between Britain and France, with their allies, fought across Europe and overseas territories, establishing Britain’s imperial supremacy.
Legacy of Pitt’s Policies
Britain’s empire expanded significantly, particularly in North America and India.
Naval dominance became the cornerstone of British power.
The war marked the transition of Britain into a leading world power, setting the stage for both imperial expansion and colonial challenges in the later eighteenth century.
Key Themes and Links
Hanoverian Concerns vs. British Interests
Monarchs prioritised Hanover’s security, often at odds with Britain’s economic interests.
Parliament and public opinion resented entanglement in German affairs.
Commerce and Colonies
Walpole tried to safeguard trade through peace, but conflict over maritime rights proved unavoidable.
By Pitt’s leadership, war was embraced as a tool for imperial gain.
Military and Political Evolution
Walpole’s reluctance to fight highlighted divisions in policy-making.
The War of Jenkins’ Ear and subsequent conflicts showed how economic grievances drove political change.
Pitt’s aggressive policies cemented the link between war, commerce, and empire.
FAQ
In 1731, Spanish coastguards allegedly boarded Jenkins’ ship, cut off his ear, and mocked him to “take it to your king.”
When Jenkins later presented the severed ear to Parliament in 1738, it fuelled public outrage and was used as propaganda against Spain’s treatment of British merchants.
The incident became symbolic of Spanish aggression and was central in rallying support for war, though the conflict itself was rooted in wider commercial disputes.
Walpole strongly opposed war, knowing it would strain Britain’s finances and disrupt trade.
He tried to negotiate settlements with Spain through diplomacy.
He emphasised the costs of war, urging Parliament to prioritise peace.
Despite his efforts, pressure from merchants, politicians, and public opinion overrode his resistance.
Walpole reluctantly declared war in 1739, famously remarking, “They now may ring their bells, soon they will be wringing their hands.”
George II was keen to defend his Hanoverian homeland, particularly against French threats.
This often shaped Britain’s alliances, such as the support for Austria during the War of the Austrian Succession.
Critics in Britain felt these policies placed German interests above national priorities, sparking debates in Parliament about whether resources should be focused on continental defence or maritime and colonial expansion.
The fall of Quebec removed France’s strongest North American stronghold.
It gave Britain control over Canada, undermining French influence in the continent.
Secured British dominance in the fur trade and opened expansion opportunities.
Boosted morale in Britain and confirmed Pitt’s naval strategy of supporting land victories.
This single success helped tilt the balance of the Seven Years War decisively in Britain’s favour.
Pitt combined borrowing with efficient management of resources.
He expanded the National Debt, issuing government bonds to fund campaigns.
Increased taxation supported naval expansion and overseas expeditions.
Crucially, he invested heavily in the Royal Navy, ensuring command of the seas.
This financial commitment was justified by the enormous territorial and commercial gains, although it left Britain with a heavy debt burden after 1763.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Name one major British victory during the Seven Years War and explain why it was significant.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying a correct British victory (e.g. capture of Quebec, capture of French Caribbean islands, successes in India).
1 mark for explaining the significance (e.g. Quebec secured Canada for Britain; Caribbean islands boosted trade and naval dominance; India victories laid groundwork for British rule).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how the War of Jenkins’ Ear and the later Seven Years War reflected changing priorities in British foreign policy between 1739 and 1763.
Mark scheme:
Up to 2 marks for describing the War of Jenkins’ Ear (e.g. focus on trade disputes with Spain in the Caribbean; example of merchant and parliamentary pressure).
Up to 2 marks for describing the Seven Years War (e.g. global nature; emphasis on colonial expansion; Pitt’s aggressive policies).
Up to 2 marks for explaining the shift in priorities (e.g. from limited, defensive trade disputes to full-scale global conflict; transition from Walpole’s pacifism to Pitt’s expansionist strategy).
Maximum 6 marks: responses must address both wars and demonstrate awareness of continuity and change.
