OCR Specification focus:
‘the coup of 1991 and Russia under Yeltsin; reunification of Germany’
The collapse of Soviet authority in 1991 and the subsequent German reunification marked pivotal turning points that reshaped the Cold War’s closing chapter and Europe’s future.
The Coup of 1991
Background to the Coup
By the late 1980s, the Soviet Union was under severe strain. Mikhail Gorbachev’s reforms of perestroika (economic restructuring) and glasnost (political openness) had exposed deep systemic weaknesses in the USSR. Instead of stabilising the regime, these policies:
Encouraged greater demands for freedom in Eastern Europe.
Weakened Communist Party authority at home.
Allowed nationalist movements within Soviet republics to flourish.
Perestroika: Economic reforms initiated by Gorbachev to decentralise decision-making and introduce limited market mechanisms.
Gorbachev’s policies caused unease among hardliners in the Communist Party, military, and KGB, who feared the dissolution of Soviet power.
Events of the Coup
In August 1991, a group of conservative officials known as the State Committee on the State of Emergency attempted to seize power. Their aims were:
To remove Gorbachev from office.
To re-establish firm Communist control.
To halt the independence movements spreading across the republics.
The coup unfolded when tanks were sent into Moscow, communications were restricted, and Gorbachev was held under house arrest in Crimea.
Boris Yeltsin’s Role
Boris Yeltsin, President of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), became central in opposing the coup.
Boris Yeltsin addresses a mass rally outside the Russian White House on 22 August 1991, the day the coup collapsed. The Russian tricolour appears prominently as it regained state-symbol status, signalling a political break with the Soviet order. The scene exemplifies the public mobilisation that underpinned the coup’s failure and Yeltsin’s rising authority. Source
He:
Publicly denounced the coup as unconstitutional.
Climbed atop a tank outside the Russian White House, calling for mass resistance.
Garnered support from Moscow citizens, the police, and sections of the military.
The failure of the coup, collapsing within three days, was a turning point. The plotters underestimated public resistance and Yeltsin’s authority.
Russia Under Yeltsin
Shift in Power
The coup discredited the Communist Party and dramatically weakened Gorbachev. From late 1991:
Yeltsin assumed the dominant political position within Russia.
He banned the Communist Party from operating within Russia.
Power increasingly shifted from the Soviet centre to the Russian republic.
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR): The largest and most influential Soviet republic, later becoming the Russian Federation.
Collapse of the USSR
Yeltsin spearheaded agreements with leaders of other republics, particularly Ukraine and Belarus, leading to the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) in December 1991. This effectively replaced the Soviet Union.
On 25 December 1991, Gorbachev resigned as President of the USSR. The red Soviet flag was lowered from the Kremlin, symbolising the USSR’s dissolution.
Political and Economic Change
Under Yeltsin, Russia:
Transitioned rapidly to a market economy through "shock therapy," involving privatisation and liberalisation.
Faced severe inflation, unemployment, and social dislocation.
Moved towards democratic institutions, though plagued by instability and corruption.
Reunification of Germany
Context
Germany had been divided since the end of the Second World War into:
A clear locator map highlighting East Germany (GDR) against the Federal Republic (FRG) provides essential geographic context for students. Source
Federal Republic of Germany (FRG/West Germany), capitalist and democratic.
German Democratic Republic (GDR/East Germany), socialist and under Soviet control.
The fall of the Berlin Wall in November 1989 signalled the collapse of East German communism and the beginning of rapid change.
Steps Towards Reunification
Key stages in reunification included:
March 1990: East Germany held its first free elections, won by parties supporting unification with the West.
July 1990: A currency union introduced the Deutschmark in the East.
October 1990: Formal unification of East and West Germany into a single state.
International Negotiations
German reunification required approval from the four wartime occupying powers: the USA, USSR, Britain, and France.
These were achieved through the Two Plus Four Treaty (1990), involving:
The two German states.
The four Allied powers.
The USSR, despite concerns, accepted reunification in exchange for guarantees:
NATO would not extend eastwards immediately.
Germany would recognise post-war borders, including with Poland.
Significant financial aid was promised to Moscow to ease acceptance.
Impact on the Cold War
The reunification of Germany was symbolically and strategically significant:
It represented the end of the division of Europe into East and West.
NATO was strengthened by Germany’s integration.
The collapse of Soviet control over Eastern Europe accelerated.
Broader Significance
The 1991 coup illustrated the weakness of the Soviet regime and accelerated its collapse.
Yeltsin emerged as the dominant leader of post-Soviet Russia, overseeing the turbulent shift to capitalism.
German reunification was both a triumph of Western diplomacy and a marker of the Cold War’s end.
Together, these events reshaped the European order, ending the bipolar system that had defined international relations since 1945.
FAQ
The coup leaders assumed that the Soviet military and security services would remain loyal to the Communist Party and enforce their orders.
They also believed public resistance would be limited, given past crackdowns in Eastern Europe.
However, divisions within the army and the growing independence of republics meant their assumptions were fatally flawed.
Yeltsin emerged as a symbol of democratic resistance, contrasting with Gorbachev, who appeared weakened and indecisive.
His visible defiance on the tank outside the Russian White House made him an international figure of authority.
This transformation allowed Yeltsin to assume the political initiative and eclipse Gorbachev.
Russia inherited huge structural problems:
Industrial decline due to outdated factories.
Falling oil revenues, reducing state income.
Hyperinflation after the end of price controls.
These crises caused unemployment and a sharp fall in living standards, undermining early enthusiasm for reform.
Western powers welcomed reunification as a sign of European stability and the end of Cold War divisions.
The USSR accepted the process reluctantly but was incentivised by promises of financial aid, especially from West Germany.
NATO agreed to limited assurances that eased Soviet security concerns, though debates over NATO expansion would later resurface.
Symbols became powerful political tools in this period.
In Moscow, the raising of the Russian tricolour over the White House signalled a break from Soviet authority.
In Germany, the fall of the Berlin Wall and the rapid circulation of the Deutschmark in the East became visible signs of unity.
These symbolic acts reinforced political change and shaped public perception of success.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Germany officially reunify, and under which treaty was this reunification internationally recognised?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correct year: 1990.
1 mark for naming the treaty: Two Plus Four Treaty (accept variations such as “Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany”).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two significant ways in which Boris Yeltsin’s role during the 1991 coup affected the future of Russia.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 3 marks for each explanation (maximum 6 marks).
1 mark for identifying a relevant aspect of Yeltsin’s role.
1 mark for describing how this aspect affected Russia.
1 mark for explaining the significance or longer-term consequence.
Indicative content:
Public opposition to the coup: Yeltsin’s stand outside the Russian White House undermined the State Committee’s authority, marking him as a defender of democracy. This built legitimacy for his leadership.
Shift of power from Gorbachev to Yeltsin: By denouncing the Communist Party and banning it in Russia, Yeltsin consolidated authority, paving the way for the Russian Federation and the eventual collapse of the USSR.
Formation of the CIS: His negotiations with other republics to replace the USSR demonstrated decisive leadership and permanently changed Russia’s political framework.
Maximum marks require clear explanation of significance, not just description.
