OCR Specification focus:
‘civil war and the break-up of Yugoslavia to 1995’
The collapse of Yugoslavia and ensuing civil wars reshaped European politics. Ethnic tensions, nationalism, and international interventions defined this turbulent end to the Cold War.
Background to Yugoslavia’s Break-up
The Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a multi-ethnic federation formed after the Second World War. It consisted of six republics — Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Montenegro, Serbia, and Macedonia — and two autonomous provinces within Serbia: Kosovo and Vojvodina.
Political map of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 1945–1991, showing its six republics and the autonomous provinces of Kosovo and Vojvodina. Major cities and internal republican borders are labelled for orientation. Source
The death of Josip Broz Tito in 1980 removed the unifying leader who had suppressed nationalist rivalries. Economic decline, rising unemployment, and uneven development between richer northern republics (such as Slovenia and Croatia) and poorer southern regions (such as Kosovo and Macedonia) exacerbated tensions.
Nationalism: A political ideology emphasising the interests, culture, and identity of a nation, often seeking independence or autonomy.
By the late 1980s, the rise of Slobodan Milošević in Serbia, promoting Serbian nationalism and centralisation, alarmed other republics and accelerated fragmentation.
The Road to Conflict
Slovenia and Croatia 1991
Slovenia declared independence in June 1991, leading to the Ten-Day War against the Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA). Minimal casualties occurred, and Slovenia secured independence swiftly.
Croatia also declared independence in June 1991, but conflict escalated into a bloody war with the JNA and Serb militias. Fighting centred on areas with large Serb populations, particularly in the Krajina region and eastern Slavonia.
Bosnia-Herzegovina 1992
Bosnia’s declaration of independence in 1992 triggered the most devastating phase of the conflict. The population was ethnically mixed — Muslims (Bosniaks), Serbs, and Croats — leading to competing territorial claims.
The war was marked by:
Ethnic cleansing, particularly by Bosnian Serb forces, aiming to remove non-Serbs from strategic territories.
The siege of Sarajevo (1992–1996), a prolonged and brutal assault on the Bosnian capital.
The Srebrenica massacre (July 1995), in which more than 8,000 Bosniak men and boys were killed by Bosnian Serb forces under Ratko Mladić.
Ethnic Cleansing: The systematic removal or extermination of ethnic groups from a territory through violence, intimidation, or forced deportation.
Other Regions
Macedonia declared independence peacefully in 1991, avoiding major conflict, though tensions remained with ethnic Albanian communities.
Kosovo remained under Serbian control but unrest grew, setting the stage for later conflict in the late 1990s.
Montenegro largely sided with Serbia, maintaining a joint federation until later separation.
International Involvement
United Nations
The UN attempted peacekeeping through the deployment of forces such as UNPROFOR (United Nations Protection Force) from 1992. Its mandate included humanitarian relief and monitoring ceasefires, but it lacked sufficient powers to enforce peace.
NATO
By the mid-1990s, NATO became increasingly involved:
Enforced no-fly zones over Bosnia.
Conducted limited air strikes against Bosnian Serb positions in 1994.
Undertook a major bombing campaign in 1995 following the Srebrenica massacre and attacks on UN safe zones.
Diplomatic Efforts
Repeated peace negotiations failed until the Dayton Accords in December 1995, brokered by the United States. These agreements:
Recognised Bosnia-Herzegovina as a single state composed of two entities: the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Bosniak-Croat) and the Republika Srpska (Serb).
Map of Bosnia and Herzegovina showing the two Dayton-created entities and the Brčko District. Source
Required withdrawal of foreign forces and established international oversight.
Humanitarian Consequences
The Yugoslav wars resulted in enormous suffering:
Approximately 140,000 deaths between 1991 and 1995, with Bosnia suffering the highest casualties.
Millions displaced as refugees, particularly from Bosnia.
Extensive destruction of infrastructure, cities, and cultural heritage.
The wars highlighted the failure of European diplomacy to prevent bloodshed and underscored the necessity of US and NATO involvement.
Impact on the Cold War Context
The break-up of Yugoslavia occurred during the final phase of the Cold War’s end:
The violence undermined the optimism of a new, peaceful European order after 1989.
It tested international organisations such as the UN and NATO in adapting to post-Cold War crises.
It exposed deep-rooted ethnic and national divisions previously suppressed by Cold War bipolarity.
Dayton Accords: The 1995 peace agreement ending the Bosnian War, negotiated in Dayton, Ohio, and signed in Paris.
The Yugoslav conflicts revealed that the collapse of communist regimes in Eastern Europe did not guarantee stability. Instead, ethnic nationalism became a destabilising force in the post-Cold War world.
FAQ
Milošević promoted Serbian nationalism and sought greater control over the federation. His policies, including support for Serb minorities in Croatia and Bosnia, encouraged secessionist conflicts.
He also backed the Yugoslav People’s Army (JNA) and armed Serb militias, ensuring Serbia’s influence across the region. This contributed to the violent escalation of wars in Croatia and Bosnia.
Western powers were initially reluctant due to:
Fears of becoming trapped in a complex ethnic conflict.
Memories of Vietnam and Somalia discouraging military intervention.
Belief that the European Community should handle the crisis.
The complexity of alliances and unclear accountability also delayed decisive action until atrocities like Srebrenica made intervention unavoidable.
Televised images of the siege of Sarajevo and reports of concentration camps shaped global opinion.
Media coverage highlighted humanitarian suffering and pressured governments to act, particularly in the United States and Western Europe. This growing public awareness accelerated calls for intervention by NATO and the UN.
Brčko was a strategically vital corridor linking the two halves of Republika Srpska.
Disputes over its control threatened to destabilise peace efforts. To prevent renewed conflict, the Dayton Accords placed Brčko under international supervision, designating it as a neutral, self-governing district.
The Yugoslav wars marked NATO’s first major military operations beyond collective defence.
Key impacts included:
Establishing NATO as a peace-enforcement body, not just a Cold War alliance.
Strengthening cooperation between NATO and the UN.
Setting precedents for future humanitarian interventions, such as Kosovo in 1999.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Name two republics that declared independence from Yugoslavia in 1991.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each correctly identified republic (maximum 2 marks).
Acceptable answers: Slovenia, Croatia.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two consequences of the Srebrenica massacre (1995) for the international community.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks per consequence, maximum 6 marks.
Consequence 1 (up to 3 marks): For example, NATO intensified its military involvement, including air strikes against Bosnian Serb positions (1 mark identification, 1–2 marks explanation of significance).
Consequence 2 (up to 3 marks): For example, it led to increased diplomatic pressure, culminating in the Dayton Accords later in 1995 (1 mark identification, 1–2 marks explanation of significance).
Credit other valid responses such as: damaged UN credibility, highlighted failures of peacekeeping forces, or shaped future humanitarian intervention policies.
