OCR Specification focus:
‘Relations with Christians; systems and methods of government’
The Umayyad Empire (661–750) was shaped by both its relationship with non-Muslim communities, particularly Christians, and by the development of new systems of government. These elements were central to maintaining control across a rapidly expanding and religiously diverse empire.
Relations with Christians
The Religious Context
When the Umayyads came to power, the majority of their subjects were non-Muslims, and a large proportion of these were Christians, especially in Syria, Egypt, and North Africa. Christianity was deeply entrenched in the Byzantine provinces that had fallen to the Muslims, and managing relations with these communities was crucial for political stability.
Dhimmī: A non-Muslim (usually Christian or Jew) living under Islamic rule who was granted protection in return for paying a special tax (jizya).
Policies Toward Christians
The Umayyads pursued a policy of pragmatism toward Christians.
Christians were recognised as “People of the Book”, meaning their faith was considered to have received earlier revelations from God.
They were allowed to continue practising their religion, maintain churches, and run their own communities.
In exchange, they paid the jizya tax, a financial obligation levied on adult non-Muslim males, which became a significant source of revenue for the state.
This arrangement allowed the Umayyads to benefit economically while avoiding unnecessary rebellion.
Integration of Christians in Society
Christians played an important role in administration, particularly during the early Umayyad period when Arabic had not yet fully replaced Greek as the administrative language.
Many Christian officials served as scribes, bureaucrats, and tax collectors, especially in Syria and Egypt.
There was no enforced mass conversion in the early Umayyad period, reflecting the empire’s reliance on Christian expertise and economic contributions.
Tensions and Gradual Change
While early Umayyad rulers maintained tolerant policies, tensions developed:
Over time, Muslim elites pressed for greater Islamisation of government. By the reforms of ‘Abd al-Malik (685–705), Arabic replaced Greek in administration, reducing reliance on Christian officials.
Some Christians felt marginalised by this shift and gradually converted to Islam, whether for social mobility, reduced taxation, or political acceptance.
Despite these changes, many Christians retained local influence, particularly through monastic and ecclesiastical networks.
Systems and Methods of Government
Centralisation of Power
The Umayyad Caliphate developed a more structured form of governance to manage its expanding empire. The Caliph acted as the supreme authority, combining both political and religious leadership. His legitimacy derived from being the successor to the Prophet Muhammad, though unlike the early caliphs, the Umayyads established a hereditary dynasty.
Administrative Divisions
The empire was divided into provinces (wilayat), each governed by a wali (governor) appointed by the Caliph. These governors oversaw:
Collection of taxes.
Maintenance of law and order.
Command of local armies.
This provincial system allowed the Caliphate to exert control while still permitting regional flexibility.
Fiscal Systems
The Umayyads refined and expanded earlier fiscal practices:
Kharaj: Land tax levied on conquered territories.
Jizya: Tax on non-Muslim adult males.
Zakat: Alms tax required of Muslims, functioning as both a religious duty and a source of state revenue.
These taxes provided the financial basis for military expansion and administration.
Kharaj: A tax imposed on agricultural land in conquered territories, often retained even when inhabitants converted to Islam.
Bureaucratic Reforms
Under ‘Abd al-Malik, reforms made government more efficient and unified:
Arabic became the official administrative language, standardising communication across the empire.
A Muslim coinage system was introduced, replacing Byzantine and Sassanian coins.
Gold dinar minted under Caliph ‘Abd al-Malik, 697–98 CE (Damascus). The Arabic inscriptions and aniconic design illustrate the Umayyads’ standardised currency and assertion of Islamic state legitimacy. Source
The postal service (barīd) was developed for fast communication, intelligence gathering, and reinforcement of central authority.
Military Organisation
The Umayyads relied heavily on their military system to maintain control:
The empire was sustained by garrison towns (amṣār) such as Kufa and Basra, where Arab-Muslim troops were stationed.
Soldiers were given land or stipends from tax revenue.
Tribal identity remained important within the military, but gradual professionalisation occurred to ensure loyalty to the caliph.
Methods of Control and Legitimacy
To reinforce their rule, the Umayyads used several strategies:
Religious authority: While not universally accepted as pious rulers, they claimed legitimacy as successors to the Prophet.
Symbolic architecture: Buildings such as the Dome of the Rock (691) in Jerusalem projected Islamic authority and political strength.
The Dome of the Rock (completed 691 CE under ‘Abd al-Malik) on Jerusalem’s Haram al-Sharif. As an early Umayyad monument it signalled caliphal authority while adopting and adapting Byzantine visual languages familiar to local Christian populations. Source
Suppression of dissent: Revolts, often led by discontented tribes or religious opponents, were put down decisively.
Balance Between Tradition and Innovation
The Umayyads balanced continuity with innovation:
They preserved many administrative systems inherited from the Byzantine and Sassanian empires.
Simultaneously, they Islamised governance, marking the first attempt to create a distinctly Islamic state structure.
Legacy of Christian Relations and Government Systems
The Umayyads established precedents for coexistence between Muslims and Christians while introducing lasting systems of taxation, administration, and central authority. Their governance created a model later refined by the Abbasids, shaping Islamic statecraft for centuries.
FAQ
The Umayyads offered Christians autonomy in religious and communal matters while enforcing taxes such as the jizya.
This arrangement:
Gave Christians security under Muslim rule.
Generated significant revenue for the state.
Allowed the Caliphate to avoid widespread resistance.
By tolerating worship but restricting high political power to Muslims, the Umayyads maintained both stability and clear Muslim dominance.
Many provinces newly conquered from Byzantium had administrative systems deeply rooted in Greek and Coptic traditions. The Umayyads lacked enough skilled Arabic-speaking officials initially, so Christians filled these roles.
Their linguistic ability, literacy, and experience with taxation made them indispensable until Arabic replaced Greek and Syriac under ‘Abd al-Malik.
Architecture served as both a religious and political statement.
The Dome of the Rock adapted Byzantine design familiar to Christians while marking Jerusalem as an Islamic centre.
Churches were generally preserved, though some were converted into mosques to symbolise authority.
This blending of continuity and change allowed the Umayyads to assert dominance without alienating local populations completely.
Governors (walis) had significant autonomy, particularly in tax collection and maintaining order.
In Christian-majority regions such as Egypt, governors often relied on local Christian officials for smooth administration.
However, tensions could arise when tax burdens were increased or when governors were seen as favouring Arab settlers.
This dual reliance and tension shaped daily relations between rulers and subject populations.
Over time, many Christians gradually converted to Islam, often for economic or social reasons rather than by force.
Effects included:
Reduced tax burden for converts.
Access to better military and administrative careers.
A slow demographic shift, as Christian communities remained important but less politically influential.
These changes helped set the foundations for a more Islamised society under the Abbasids.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
What was the jizya tax, and who was required to pay it under the Umayyad Caliphate?
Mark scheme:
1 mark for identifying it as a tax imposed on non-Muslims (usually adult males).
1 mark for noting it was a condition of protection/permission to practise their religion.
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two ways in which the Umayyad Caliphs strengthened their authority through systems and methods of government.
Mark scheme:
Up to 3 marks per explanation.
Points that could be awarded include (any two):
Introduction of Arabic as the official administrative language (1 mark), which unified communication across provinces (1 mark), and reduced dependence on Christian officials (1 mark).
Reform of the coinage system under ‘Abd al-Malik (1 mark), introducing standardised Muslim coins with Islamic inscriptions (1 mark), which reinforced both economic control and Islamic identity (1 mark).
Establishment of a provincial system with governors (walis) (1 mark), allowing central control over taxation, law, and military matters (1 mark), creating a structured empire-wide bureaucracy (1 mark).
Development of the barīd (postal service) (1 mark), providing efficient communication (1 mark), and allowing surveillance/intelligence to reinforce caliphal authority (1 mark).
Maximum 6 marks available. Each valid example capped at 3 marks.
