OCR Specification focus:
‘Unrest, including the Third Fitna; decline of the Umayyad Empire’
The Umayyad Empire’s decline reflected political instability, religious division, economic strain, and opposition movements, culminating in the Third Fitna and Abbasid revolution.
Political Instability and the Third Fitna
The Nature of the Third Fitna
The Third Fitna (744–750) was a prolonged civil war within the Umayyad dynasty, involving disputed successions and rebellions that exposed the weakness of central authority.
Following the death of Caliph Hisham (743), rival claimants emerged, including al-Walid II, Yazid III, and Marwan II.
The rapid succession of rulers undermined confidence in the caliphate’s legitimacy.
Provinces such as Kufa, Khurasan, and Egypt witnessed revolts, which further eroded central authority.
Fitna: An Arabic term meaning “trial” or “civil strife,” used in Islamic history to denote internal conflicts or wars of succession.
Impact of Factional Rivalries
Tribal tensions between Qays (northern Arabs) and Yemen (southern Arabs) destabilised the empire.
Governors and generals often prioritised tribal loyalty over loyalty to the caliph.
Marwan II, the final Umayyad ruler, attempted to centralise control but faced near-constant rebellion.
Religious Opposition
Shia Challenges
Shia Muslims opposed Umayyad rule, viewing them as illegitimate successors to the Prophet Muhammad.
Revolts such as those led by Zayd ibn Ali (740) highlighted enduring grievances against the dynasty.
Kharijite Rebellions
The Kharijites, a radical sect that rejected both Umayyad and Shia claims, launched repeated uprisings.
Their rejection of dynastic succession reflected broader dissatisfaction with Umayyad governance.
Abbasid Propaganda
The Abbasid family claimed descent from the Prophet’s uncle, al-Abbas, giving them religious credibility.
They presented themselves as defenders of justice and equality, appealing especially to disenfranchised groups such as non-Arab Muslims.
Economic Strain
Fiscal Pressures
Constant warfare drained resources and increased taxation.
Discontent grew among both Arab elites, who resented reduced privileges, and mawali (non-Arab converts), who remained subject to unequal tax burdens.
Mawali: Non-Arab converts to Islam who often faced social and economic discrimination under Umayyad rule despite their religious affiliation.
Declining Revenues
Agricultural productivity declined due to over-extension and mismanagement of provinces.
Revolts in key regions, such as Khurasan, disrupted the flow of tax revenues.
Social Tensions and Opposition Movements
Unequal Treatment of Non-Arabs
The Umayyad policy of privileging Arab Muslims above others alienated large segments of the population.
Non-Arab Muslims, particularly in Persia and Central Asia, became a crucial base of Abbasid support.
Urban and Rural Unrest
City populations grew restless due to high taxation and poor governance.
Rural communities bore the brunt of military requisitions and taxation, fuelling resentment.
Military Decline
Overstretch of the Empire
Expansion slowed by the mid-8th century, and the military faced difficulties defending long borders.
Large preview image at the top of the file page, above the “Summary” block.
Caption: Map of the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern worlds around 740 CE, showing the Umayyad Caliphate near its greatest extent. The visual clarifies how long, exposed borders strained resources and cohesion on the eve of the Third Fitna. Source
Shifts in Loyalty
Tribal armies no longer served as a unified force.
Provincial forces increasingly aligned with local leaders or opposition movements rather than the central government.
The Fall of the Umayyads
The Abbasid Revolution
In Khurasan, the Abbasid revolt under Abu Muslim gained momentum by mobilising discontented Persians and Arabs.
By 750, Abbasid forces decisively defeated Marwan II at the Battle of the Great Zab River, marking the end of Umayyad rule in most territories.
Battle of the Great Zab River: A decisive battle in 750 CE where Abbasid forces defeated the last Umayyad caliph, Marwan II, leading to the fall of the dynasty.
Aftermath
The Abbasids systematically eliminated most of the Umayyad family to prevent future claims.
One surviving prince, Abd al-Rahman I, fled to Spain and established the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba, ensuring the dynasty’s legacy continued in the West.
Key Reasons for Decline
Civil wars and disputed succession (Third Fitna).
Tribal rivalries weakening central unity.
Religious opposition from Shia, Kharijites, and Abbasid propagandists.
Economic grievances, especially among non-Arab Muslims (mawali).
Military overstretch and declining loyalty of provincial armies.
FAQ
Regional governors often acted as independent power brokers, prioritising local loyalties over the caliph.
In provinces such as Khurasan and Egypt, governors sided with tribal factions or rebel claimants, weakening central authority. Their shifting alliances meant rebellions spread quickly, accelerating the breakdown of unity within the empire.
The Umayyads made limited reforms to reduce taxation on non-Arab converts, but implementation was inconsistent.
Some governors allowed mawali to avoid the jizya tax once converted.
Others continued discriminatory practices, fuelling anger.
The Abbasids capitalised on this by promising genuine equality, strengthening their revolutionary appeal.
Khurasan, a large province in the east, was militarily and strategically significant.
It provided crucial manpower, particularly frontier soldiers.
Resentment at unequal treatment of non-Arab Muslims made it fertile ground for Abbasid propaganda.
The region’s distance from Damascus also meant central control was weak, allowing revolutionary movements to flourish under leaders like Abu Muslim.
The persistent conflict between Qays (northern Arabs) and Yemen (southern Arabs) destabilised the dynasty.
Recruitment into the army often reflected tribal divisions, leading to infighting.
Tribes supported rival caliphs during the Third Fitna, fragmenting loyalty.
This rivalry sapped the cohesion of both political and military structures.
The Abbasids promoted their descent from al-Abbas, the Prophet Muhammad’s uncle, as a sign of legitimacy.
They emphasised themes of justice, equality, and inclusion of non-Arab Muslims, contrasting this with Umayyad elitism.
Abbasid supporters also framed the Umayyads as corrupt and un-Islamic, highlighting their luxurious lifestyle and neglect of religious duties to undermine their moral authority.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What was the Third Fitna in the context of the Umayyad Empire?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying that it was a civil war or period of internal strife.
1 mark for correctly placing it in the Umayyad Empire between 744–750 CE or noting it involved rival claimants to the caliphate.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why the Umayyad Empire declined in the mid-8th century.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each reason explained, maximum of 6 marks.
To reach full marks, answers must go beyond identification and offer explanation.
Possible points:
Political instability and the Third Fitna (up to 3 marks): mention of disputed succession, rapid change of rulers, rival claimants such as Marwan II, and civil war undermining authority.
Religious opposition (up to 3 marks): Shia rejection of Umayyad legitimacy, Kharijite uprisings, or Abbasid propaganda presenting them as more just rulers.
Economic strain (up to 3 marks): mention of high taxation, unequal treatment of mawali, and disruption of revenues from provinces such as Khurasan.
Military overstretch (up to 3 marks): empire too large to defend effectively, weakening of loyalty among tribal armies, rebellions in outlying provinces.
Award up to 2 marks for identification alone; the third mark for each reason requires explanation of how it contributed to decline.
