OCR Specification focus:
‘religion and the Olokun Cult, commerce and the economy, including trade with Europeans, especially Portugal; slavery; ivory; reasons for the beginnings of the decline of Benin from c.1700: European colonialism’
Introduction
The Kingdom of Benin between c.1500 and c.1750 experienced dynamic cultural, religious, and economic developments. Religion, trade, and slavery defined Benin’s influence while European colonial ambitions reshaped its trajectory.
Religion in the Kingdom of Benin
The Role of Religion
Religion in Benin was not merely spiritual but also deeply political and social. Religious belief helped reinforce royal authority, legitimised political control, and created cohesion across the kingdom. The Oba (king) was seen as both a political and spiritual leader, linking governance to divine sanction.
The Olokun Cult
The Olokun Cult was one of the most significant religious institutions in Benin during this period.
Olokun: A major deity in Benin religion, associated with the sea, wealth, fertility, and prosperity.
Olokun was worshipped for his control over the oceans and trade routes, which were crucial to Benin’s wealth. This deity became increasingly important after the arrival of Europeans, as maritime trade took centre stage.
Key aspects of the Olokun Cult:
Association with wealth: Olokun was believed to bestow riches, particularly through successful trade.
Royal patronage: The Oba promoted Olokun worship, strengthening his claim to divine favour.
Artistic representation: Many ivory carvings and bronze plaques depicted Olokun, symbolising the integration of religion and economic prosperity.
Rituals and Symbolism
The Olokun cult performed elaborate rituals:
Offerings of ivory, coral, and cowries to symbolise wealth.
Priestly ceremonies reinforcing the kingdom’s prosperity and fertility.
Religious festivals that projected the Oba’s spiritual power to the wider population.
Commerce and the Economy
Trade with Europeans
From the late 15th century, contact with the Portuguese transformed Benin’s economy. The kingdom became a major centre for commerce in ivory, pepper, textiles, and later slaves.
Important trade features:
Ivory exports: Ivory became a key commodity due to high European demand. Portuguese merchants exchanged European goods—such as firearms, metal, and cloth—for Benin’s ivory.
Benin bronze plaque of a Portuguese soldier with manillas, currency exchanged for ivory and goods. It illustrates Afro-Portuguese trade and European presence in Benin’s economy. Source
Strategic position: Benin’s access to the Atlantic coast facilitated direct trade with Europeans while maintaining African regional exchanges.
Regulated commerce: The Oba controlled trade routes, ensuring wealth flowed into the royal court and bolstered central power.
Impact on Society
Trade reshaped social and political dynamics:
Elite families gained influence through involvement in long-distance commerce.
Access to firearms enhanced military capability, strengthening Benin’s regional dominance.
Increased wealth funded the production of bronze plaques and court art, which documented Benin’s prosperity.
Slavery in Benin
Early Slave Trade
Initially, the Kingdom of Benin was cautious about selling slaves to Europeans. The Oba restricted large-scale involvement, partly due to moral and political considerations and the importance of slaves for internal use in agriculture and the military.
Expansion of Slave Exports
By the 16th and 17th centuries, however, slave trading grew in significance:
Portuguese and later Dutch demand drove exports of enslaved people.
Benin’s rulers at times limited the trade, but competition with neighbouring states and pressures from European traders gradually increased involvement.
Slavery became a means of acquiring firearms, cloth, and luxury goods.
Slavery: The condition in which individuals are treated as property, deprived of freedom, and forced into labour or sale. In Benin, slavery included both domestic servitude and the export of people to European traders.
Domestic Slavery
Apart from export, slavery was also central to Benin’s internal economy:
Enslaved individuals worked in agriculture, supporting food production for the capital and military.
Some were employed in crafts and court service, sustaining Benin’s artistic output.
Ivory and Cultural Expression
Importance of Ivory
Ivory was not only an economic commodity but also a cultural and religious material:
Ivory carvings depicted the Oba, warriors, and deities.
They symbolised authority, wealth, and divine favour, often linked to Olokun.
Ivory exports to Portugal established Benin’s reputation for exquisite craftsmanship in Europe.
Ivory pendant mask of the Queen Mother Idia, representing Benin’s artistry and ivory’s symbolic link to power and purity. The detail exemplifies court art tied to prestige and religion. Source
Art and Ideology
Court art in ivory and bronze plaques celebrated:
Benin’s military success.
The divine role of the Oba.
Symbolic representations of trade, conquest, and diplomacy.
Reasons for the Beginnings of Decline after c.1700
European Colonialism
The growing influence of European powers after c.1700 undermined Benin’s independence:
Portuguese and later Dutch and English traders shifted trade routes, weakening Benin’s monopoly.
Colonial expansion disrupted traditional commerce, making Benin increasingly dependent on European markets.
Shifts in Trade
As demand for ivory decreased, Benin lost one of its principal exports.
The growth of the Atlantic slave trade destabilised the region, pushing Benin to participate more heavily despite earlier reluctance.
Internal Pressures
Succession disputes weakened royal control.
Social divisions widened due to unequal distribution of wealth from trade.
The reliance on European firearms intensified regional warfare and created vulnerability to external manipulation.
FAQ
Offerings to Olokun often included ivory, coral, and cowries.
Ivory symbolised purity, durability, and connection to wealth.
Coral was seen as a sacred material linked to kingship and protection.
Cowries, used as currency, symbolised prosperity and trade success.
These materials reflected Olokun’s associations with the sea, wealth, and fertility, while also reinforcing the Oba’s legitimacy by demonstrating access to rare and prestigious resources.
The Portuguese viewed Benin’s rituals, particularly the Olokun cult, as evidence of an organised and sophisticated spiritual system.
While they attempted to introduce Christianity, they respected Benin’s established traditions because of the Oba’s authority. Religious diplomacy allowed both sides to build commercial ties, with the Portuguese recognising that trade depended on honouring local customs and leadership.
Women were important participants in rituals connected to fertility and prosperity.
Female priestesses served in shrines dedicated to Olokun.
The Queen Mother (Iyoba) held symbolic spiritual authority, often linked to protective powers over the Oba.
Women’s involvement emphasised the association of religion with fertility and continuity of the dynasty.
Thus, religion provided elite women with both spiritual influence and political visibility.
Ivory was prized for its rarity, durability, and suitability for carving into religious, decorative, and practical objects.
For Europeans, it was used to make religious artefacts, luxury goods such as combs and crucifixes, and decorative inlays. Unlike perishable goods, ivory retained long-term value and status.
Its trade also symbolised access to African resources and artistry, making it especially attractive in European courts and churches.
Unlike some kingdoms that quickly embraced large-scale slave exports, Benin initially restricted the trade.
The Oba preferred to maintain political stability and use slaves internally for agriculture and court service.
Control over slave exports limited dependence on European demands, unlike states such as Dahomey, which became heavily reliant on the trade.
This cautious approach slowed Benin’s integration into the transatlantic slave system, although by the 17th century external pressures made greater involvement unavoidable.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two ways in which the Olokun cult was linked to the power of the Oba of Benin.
Mark scheme:
1 mark for each correct point (maximum 2).
Possible correct answers include:
The Oba claimed divine favour through association with Olokun.
Royal patronage of the Olokun cult reinforced his authority.
Olokun’s association with wealth and trade underlined the Oba’s control over commerce.
Religious festivals of Olokun projected the Oba’s spiritual and political role.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how trade with the Portuguese affected the economy and society of Benin between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.
Mark scheme:
Level 1 (1–2 marks): General comments with little specific detail (e.g. “Benin traded with the Portuguese and it made them richer”).
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some accurate knowledge of trade with Portugal, but limited explanation of its effects on economy and society (e.g. mentions ivory exports or firearms, but without linking to impact).
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Detailed knowledge and clear explanation of multiple effects on both economy and society.
Examples of economy: Ivory exports generated wealth; Portuguese goods (firearms, cloth, metal) exchanged; Oba regulated trade ensuring centralised control.
Examples of society: Elites gained influence through commerce; firearms strengthened military dominance; artistic production (bronze and ivory works) funded by trade.
To achieve full marks, answers must cover both economic and social consequences with clear, specific examples.
