OCR Specification focus:
‘ivory; reasons for the beginnings of the decline of Benin from c.1700: European colonialism, slavery, changing patterns of trade and commerce, succession crises and civil wars, socio-political change’
The Kingdom of Benin reached the height of its political, cultural, and economic strength by the sixteenth century, yet by c.1700 early signs of decline began to emerge.
The Importance of Ivory in Benin
Ivory was one of the most significant commodities of the Benin economy. Carved into elaborate artworks or traded as raw material, it was central to both economic prosperity and cultural identity.
Altar tusk from the Court of Benin, richly carved with royal figures and motifs that signalled sacral kingship and dynastic continuity. Such tusks stood on bronze heads on royal altars, embodying political and spiritual authority. Source
Economic Role of Ivory
Ivory was highly sought after by Portuguese and later other European traders, who prized it for its durability, whiteness, and workability.
It was exchanged for European manufactured goods, including firearms, textiles, and metalware.
Control over ivory exports enhanced the prestige and wealth of the Oba (king) and court elites.
Cultural and Religious Role of Ivory
Ivory carvings often depicted royal power, deities, and historical events.
Symbolic uses reinforced the sacral kingship of the Oba, embedding ivory within religious and political structures.
Ivory became a medium for expressing continuity of tradition and legitimacy of rulers.
Sacral kingship: The belief that a ruler derives both political and spiritual authority from divine or ancestral sources.
The reliance on ivory as a central trade commodity made Benin deeply entangled with shifting global trade patterns.
European Colonialism and Changing Trade Patterns
From the late seventeenth century, the rise of European colonial powers altered trade dynamics across West Africa.
Changing Patterns of Trade and Commerce
European traders increasingly prioritised the trans-Atlantic slave trade over goods like ivory.
Diagram of the triangular trade linking Europe, West Africa, and the Americas. Arrows show flows of manufactured goods to Africa, enslaved people across the Middle Passage, and plantation commodities to Europe. Source
This change reduced the relative economic importance of ivory, undermining Benin’s traditional role as a supplier of prestige goods.
Ports and routes shifted, favouring new African coastal states better aligned with European demands.
Early Colonial Pressures
Portuguese dominance was gradually replaced by Dutch and English traders, who sought to impose favourable terms.
Competition for trade reduced Benin’s leverage, forcing it into a less advantageous position.
The decline in ivory’s prominence reflected a wider erosion of Benin’s economic independence.
Slavery and Its Impact
By c.1700, slavery had become central to Atlantic trade, reshaping West African economies.
Benin’s Position
Unlike neighbouring states, Benin initially restricted large-scale slave exports, focusing instead on goods such as ivory, pepper, and textiles.
This cautious stance limited access to the profitable Atlantic trade, weakening Benin’s influence compared to rivals.
When Benin later participated more fully, it entered the trade at a disadvantage, as other states already controlled supply chains.
Social Consequences
Increased slave raiding destabilised internal societies and strained relations with neighbouring states.
Reliance on slavery as an economic alternative to ivory tied Benin into the exploitative structures of European commerce.
Succession Crises and Civil Wars
From the late seventeenth century, Benin was destabilised by dynastic disputes and civil wars.
Succession Crises
Disputes over the succession of the Oba often led to prolonged conflict.
Benin brass plaque showing an Oba on horseback with attendants, emblematic of sacral kingship and centralised authority. Such images express the political and ceremonial supremacy of the monarch that later came under strain. Source
Weak rulers diminished the effectiveness of central authority, undermining Benin’s ability to respond to external threats.
Civil Wars
Civil wars further fragmented the state, diverting resources away from trade and defence.
Instability discouraged long-term commercial partnerships with European traders, who sought more reliable allies.
Dynastic dispute: Conflict arising from rival claims to the throne within a royal family.
These crises revealed the vulnerability of Benin’s political structures in the face of both internal divisions and external economic change.
Socio-Political Change
The cumulative effects of economic and political strains contributed to significant socio-political transformation.
Decline of Central Authority
The Oba’s control over commerce weakened, diminishing the tributary system that had sustained imperial cohesion.
Regional chiefs (the Uzama) gained greater autonomy, undermining political centralisation.
Shifts in Society
Economic dislocation caused by declining ivory trade and the rise of slavery reshaped class relations.
Traditional elite patronage networks weakened, leading to a fragmentation of authority.
Cultural Consequences
The prestige associated with ivory art production declined as European tastes shifted.
While Benin’s artistic tradition persisted, its international significance was diminished by changing trade priorities.
Interconnected Causes of Decline
The beginnings of Benin’s decline after c.1700 cannot be explained by a single factor. Instead, multiple developments interacted to erode its stability:
European colonialism shifted trade away from ivory, reducing Benin’s economic strength.
Slavery created instability and locked Benin into disadvantageous trade systems.
Succession crises and civil wars fragmented political power.
Socio-political change undermined central authority and reshaped internal structures.
Together, these factors marked the transition from a golden age of cultural and political power to a period of vulnerability, setting the stage for further decline in the eighteenth century.
FAQ
Benin carvers used specialised tools such as chisels and abrasives to produce highly detailed reliefs on tusks and small ivory objects.
Before c.1700, motifs often emphasised royal lineage, ancestral figures, and divine power. After c.1700, as external trade shifted, ivory carving retained symbolic importance but became less central to commerce, increasingly serving ritual and courtly functions rather than international demand.
European traders encouraged large-scale production of ivory objects, particularly salt cellars, spoons, and figurines designed for export.
This contrasted with domestic ivory carvings, which were primarily for religious and political purposes. By c.1700, European preference shifted to slaves, reducing demand for ivory exports and diminishing Benin’s economic advantage.
Benin’s rulers viewed the mass export of captives as destabilising to the kingdom’s social order and internal cohesion.
Instead, they prioritised commodities such as ivory, pepper, and cloth, which allowed the Oba to maintain a controlled relationship with foreign merchants without increasing domestic insecurity.
Frequent succession struggles weakened the Oba’s ability to mobilise the army effectively.
Rival claimants diverted resources away from defence.
Regional chiefs gained power, undermining central command.
Civil wars made coordinated campaigns against external threats difficult, further eroding Benin’s territorial security.
With ivory declining in trade importance, bronze and brass casting became more prominent as a medium of expression.
Art shifted towards preserving memory and court ritual rather than producing goods tailored for European markets. This reflected a broader reorientation of cultural priorities, even as political authority weakened.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
Identify two reasons why ivory was important to the Kingdom of Benin before c.1700.
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for each valid reason identified (maximum 2 marks).
Possible answers:It was a key trade commodity exchanged with Europeans.
It reinforced the sacral kingship of the Oba through carved artworks.
It enhanced the prestige and wealth of the royal court.
It symbolised tradition and continuity within Benin society.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain how changing patterns of trade from c.1700 contributed to the beginnings of the decline of the Benin Kingdom.
Mark Scheme:
Award up to 2 marks for explanation of trade changes.
e.g. Shift from ivory to the trans-Atlantic slave trade.
e.g. Growing dominance of European colonial powers such as the Dutch and English.
Award up to 2 marks for explanation of how this weakened Benin’s economy.
e.g. Ivory became less profitable, undermining Benin’s traditional economic base.
e.g. Benin entered the slave trade late and at a disadvantage.
Award up to 2 marks for explanation of consequences.
e.g. Benin lost leverage with European traders.
e.g. Loss of prestige goods trade weakened central authority and stability.
Level of response:
1–2 marks: Simple description of trade changes with limited linkage to decline.
3–4 marks: Some explanation of how trade changes undermined Benin’s economic position, but limited detail or development.
5–6 marks: Developed explanation linking trade changes directly to economic and political decline with clear supporting examples.
