OCR Specification focus:
‘the Russian Campaign; Napoleon’s rule in France after 1807.’
The Russian Campaign of 1812 and Napoleon’s domestic rule after 1807 illustrate both the height of his power and the cracks that would hasten his downfall.
The Russian Campaign, 1812
Causes of the Campaign
Napoleon’s invasion of Russia stemmed from political and economic disputes, particularly the failure of the Continental System and Alexander I’s refusal to comply with it.
Continental System: A French-led economic blockade introduced in 1806 to prevent European nations from trading with Britain, designed to weaken Britain’s economy during the Napoleonic Wars.
Additional causes included:
Napoleon’s desire to assert dominance over Russia and prevent it from undermining French hegemony.
Alexander I’s opposition to Napoleon’s control of Poland.
Tensions over Napoleon’s dynastic ambitions, particularly his marriage alliance with the Austrian Habsburgs.
The Invasion and Its Progress
In June 1812, Napoleon launched one of the largest military campaigns in history, crossing into Russia with the Grande Armée, numbering around 600,000 men. Key features of the campaign included:
Initial advances: Napoleon captured Smolensk but failed to destroy the Russian armies.
Scorched earth tactics: Russian forces retreated while destroying crops, settlements, and supplies, leaving little for the invaders.
Battle of Borodino (September 1812): A bloody confrontation with enormous casualties (around 70,000 in a single day) but no decisive French victory.
A labelled plan of the Battle of Borodino showing principal positions and terrain features on the morning of 7 September 1812. It supports analysis of why the engagement failed to yield a decisive breakthrough. Some cartographic conventions pre-date modern symbology but remain easy to read. Source
Occupation of Moscow: Napoleon entered the city but found it abandoned and largely burned by its own citizens. With no peace offered by Alexander I, the occupation was futile.
Retreat and Collapse
By October 1812, with no supplies and winter setting in, Napoleon ordered a retreat.
This classic flow map visualises Napoleon’s 1812 campaign, correlating the army’s diminishing strength with its route and winter temperatures. The tan band traces the advance; the black band shows the retreat. Source
Freezing temperatures decimated troops, with frostbite and starvation rampant.
Harassment by Russian forces and attacks by peasants further weakened the army.
Only around 100,000 men survived, with fewer than 30,000 returning fit for service.
This catastrophic failure marked the beginning of the decline of Napoleon’s military dominance.
Napoleon’s Rule in France After 1807
The Imperial State
After 1807, Napoleon’s Empire was at its greatest territorial extent, and he consolidated his rule with a mixture of centralisation and reform. His domestic governance was characterised by both efficiency and authoritarianism.
Centralised administration: Prefects governed departments with direct accountability to Napoleon.
Patronage and titles: Napoleon created a new nobility of merit and service, blending old elites with new supporters.
Propaganda: Censorship and state-run publications promoted Napoleon’s image as a national saviour and stabiliser.
Legal and Judicial Control
The Napoleonic Code, introduced earlier, continued to shape French society after 1807. It emphasised property rights, secular authority, and patriarchal family structures. Judicial independence was curtailed, as judges were appointed by the state.
Napoleonic Code: A unified system of civil law introduced in 1804, establishing principles such as legal equality for men, property rights, and secular state authority, while restricting women’s rights.
Economic and Financial Management
Napoleon maintained a relatively stable financial system during wartime:
Established the Bank of France as a central institution supporting credit.
Tax reforms ensured steady revenue, though war costs increasingly strained the treasury.
The Continental System, while damaging European economies, failed to cripple Britain and contributed to French unpopularity abroad.
Education and Social Policy
Napoleon placed strong emphasis on education to instil loyalty to the regime:
Creation of lycées (secondary schools) under state control to train future officials and officers.
Curriculum focused on mathematics, science, and loyalty to the Empire rather than liberal or critical thought.
Social stability was prioritised:
Workers were restricted in forming associations.
Religious tensions eased by maintaining the Concordat of 1801, keeping the Church under state influence but granting freedom of worship.
Authoritarian Features of Rule
Napoleon’s governance after 1807 increasingly relied on repression and control:
Extensive censorship of newspapers, books, and theatre.
A strong police force under Joseph Fouché monitored dissent and controlled public opinion.
Suppression of political opposition ensured Napoleon’s dominance but at the expense of genuine liberty.
Impact of the Russian Campaign on Rule in France
The failure in Russia dramatically undermined Napoleon’s position:
Massive losses of manpower strained recruitment and morale in France.
The myth of Napoleon’s invincibility was broken, emboldening opposition both internally and across Europe.
Economic strain and public discontent grew, making the regime vulnerable to the Sixth Coalition.
Broader Significance
Napoleon’s rule in France after 1807 displayed his mastery of administrative centralisation, propaganda, and reform, but the Russian Campaign exposed the limits of his ambition. The collapse of the Grande Armée not only revealed the vulnerability of his military strategy but also weakened his domestic authority, setting the stage for his eventual downfall.
FAQ
The Russian winter was decisive in the destruction of the Grande Armée. Temperatures plunged to as low as –30°C, causing frostbite, starvation, and disease.
Horses died in vast numbers, leaving troops without transport for supplies or artillery. Frozen roads and rivers slowed movement, exposing soldiers to further attacks.
Ultimately, the climate magnified the effects of poor planning and the scorched earth policy, making survival impossible for tens of thousands.
Ordinary Russians supported the army by engaging in guerrilla-style resistance.
Peasants ambushed foraging parties.
Villagers destroyed food stocks to deny resources to French soldiers.
Civilians sometimes attacked stragglers during the retreat.
This grassroots resistance not only deprived the French of supplies but also created a hostile environment, ensuring Napoleon could not consolidate his occupation.
The near-total loss of the Grande Armée shattered the aura of Napoleonic invincibility.
Families across France received news of devastating casualties, creating despair and resentment. Recruitment drives faced greater resistance, and conscripts were reluctant to fight.
The disaster weakened Napoleon’s prestige and eroded popular support, undermining his ability to maintain unquestioned authority in France.
While the Code standardised French law, critics noted its limitations:
It reinforced patriarchal control, with women having few rights in marriage and property.
Political freedoms such as press liberty were not protected.
It entrenched state authority, reducing judicial independence.
Thus, while modernising, the Code also revealed the authoritarian priorities of Napoleon’s regime.
The creation of lycées ensured that education became a tool of the state.
Curricula emphasised mathematics, science, and military discipline, producing loyal civil servants and officers.
Religious education was restricted, reflecting the secular nature of the regime.
This policy created a generation trained in service to the Empire, but critics argued it stifled independent thought and promoted conformity.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
Give two reasons why Napoleon launched the invasion of Russia in 1812.
Mark Scheme
1 mark for each valid reason, up to a maximum of 2 marks.
Possible answers:
Russia’s refusal to comply with the Continental System.
Disputes over Napoleon’s control of Poland.
Alexander I’s resistance to French dominance in Europe.
Napoleon’s desire to assert his authority and prevent Russia from undermining French hegemony.
Friction caused by Napoleon’s dynastic ambitions (e.g., marriage alliance with Austria).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain how Napoleon’s rule in France after 1807 showed both reform and authoritarianism.
Mark Scheme
Award up to 6 marks.
Level 1 (1–2 marks): Basic description with limited detail. May mention a single aspect such as censorship or the Napoleonic Code without explanation.
Level 2 (3–4 marks): Some explanation of reforms (e.g., Napoleonic Code, creation of lycées, financial stability) or authoritarian features (e.g., censorship, use of police), but with limited range or depth.
Level 3 (5–6 marks): Clear and developed explanation of both reform and authoritarianism, showing balance. For example:
Reform: Napoleonic Code enshrined property rights and secular law; lycées created to train officials; financial system strengthened by Bank of France.
Authoritarianism: censorship of press and theatre, surveillance by Fouché’s police, suppression of political opposition.
Marks awarded according to range of examples and depth of explanation, not the number of points made.
