OCR Specification focus:
‘the campaigns of 1813–1815 and abdication; the Hundred Days’
The period between 1813 and 1815 witnessed the decline of Napoleon Bonaparte’s empire, culminating in abdication, exile, and the brief return of the Hundred Days.
The Campaign of 1813
The Aftermath of Russia
Following the disastrous Russian Campaign of 1812, Napoleon’s army was severely weakened. Out of the approximately 600,000 troops that entered Russia, fewer than 100,000 returned in fighting condition. This catastrophic loss shattered the aura of French invincibility and encouraged a growing coalition of European powers to rise against Napoleon.
The Sixth Coalition
The Sixth Coalition, composed of Britain, Russia, Prussia, Austria, Sweden, Spain, and smaller German states, sought to end French dominance in Europe. Napoleon managed to rebuild an army in early 1813, but these new forces were inexperienced and poorly trained compared to his earlier Grande Armée.
Key Battles of 1813
Battle of Lützen (May 1813) and Battle of Bautzen (May 1813): Napoleon won tactical victories but failed to destroy the Allied armies due to the weakness of his cavalry.
Armistice of Pläswitz (June–August 1813): A temporary truce, during which the Allies regrouped and secured Austria’s entry into the coalition.
Battle of Dresden (August 1813): Napoleon achieved a decisive victory, but his marshals elsewhere suffered defeats.
Battle of Leipzig (16–19 October 1813): Known as the Battle of Nations, this was a turning point. The combined Allied forces inflicted a crushing defeat, forcing Napoleon to retreat west of the Rhine.
Operational map of the Battle of Leipzig (16–19 October 1813), showing French and Coalition deployments and movements. The diagram highlights Napoleon’s central position around Leipzig and the multi-axis Allied pressure. Source
Battle of Nations: The largest battle in Europe prior to the First World War, fought at Leipzig in 1813, involving over 600,000 troops from multiple nations.
The defeat at Leipzig ended French control over Germany and marked the beginning of a series of retreats.
The Campaign of 1814
Allied Advance into France
The Allies pushed into France in early 1814. Napoleon, despite being heavily outnumbered, conducted a skilful defensive campaign known as the Six Days’ Campaign (February 1814), where he won several rapid victories. However, these successes could not prevent the overwhelming coalition forces from advancing on Paris.
Fall of Paris and Abdication
31 March 1814: Allied forces captured Paris.
6 April 1814: Napoleon abdicated unconditionally at Fontainebleau.
François Bouchot (after Gaetano Ferri), Napoléon signe son abdication à Fontainebleau (11 April 1814). The painting depicts Napoleon with his marshals at Fontainebleau, visually anchoring his abdication before exile to Elba. Source
He was exiled to the island of Elba, though allowed to retain his title of Emperor and sovereignty over the island.
The Hundred Days, 1815
Escape from Elba
In February 1815, Napoleon escaped Elba and landed in southern France. His journey to Paris became a triumphal march, as soldiers sent to arrest him instead joined him, shouting “Vive l’Empereur!” By 20 March, he had re-established himself in Paris, beginning the Hundred Days.
Hundred Days: The period between Napoleon’s return from exile on Elba (March 1815) and his final defeat at Waterloo, followed by his second abdication (June 1815).
Domestic Measures during the Hundred Days
Napoleon sought to consolidate his position by issuing the Acte Additionnel, a constitutional amendment that appeared to grant more liberal reforms. However, distrust among monarchists and liberals weakened his domestic support.
The Seventh Coalition
Alarmed by Napoleon’s return, the Seventh Coalition formed quickly. It included Britain, Prussia, Austria, and Russia, each committing armies to defeat him once and for all. The Duke of Wellington commanded the Anglo-Dutch forces in Belgium, while Gebhard Leberecht von Blücher led the Prussians.
The Waterloo Campaign
Battle of Ligny (16 June 1815): Napoleon defeated the Prussians but failed to annihilate them.
Battle of Quatre Bras (16 June 1815): Marshal Ney fought Wellington to a stalemate, allowing the Allies to regroup.
Battle of Waterloo (18 June 1815): Napoleon’s final defeat. Key factors included:
The steadfast defence of Wellington’s forces.
Blücher’s Prussian army arriving on the battlefield late in the day.
Tactical misjudgements by Napoleon and Ney, including poorly timed cavalry charges.
The Second Abdication
After Waterloo, Napoleon returned to Paris but found no political support. On 22 June 1815, he abdicated in favour of his son (Napoleon II), though the Allies refused recognition. He surrendered to the British, expecting asylum, but was instead exiled to the remote island of Saint Helena in the South Atlantic, where he remained until his death in 1821.
Significance of the Campaigns 1813–1815
Demonstrated the fragility of Napoleon’s empire once his military supremacy was broken.
Marked the rise of coordinated coalition warfare against France.
Led directly to the Congress of Vienna, which reshaped Europe after Napoleon’s fall.
FAQ
Austria initially sought mediation but eventually joined the Sixth Coalition after the Armistice of Pläswitz in 1813. Its intervention was decisive at Leipzig, where Austrian forces under Prince Schwarzenberg commanded the Allied main army.
In 1814, Austrian diplomacy at the Congress of Châtillon undermined Napoleon’s chances for a negotiated peace. Austria’s participation added both military weight and diplomatic authority to the coalition effort against France.
Despite facing overwhelming odds, Napoleon achieved a series of rapid victories over dispersed enemy corps in February 1814.
Victories at Champaubert, Montmirail, Château-Thierry, and Vauchamps demonstrated his tactical brilliance.
He inflicted significant casualties and slowed the Allied advance temporarily.
However, the campaign could not reverse the strategic reality of France’s isolation and inferior resources.
In 1814, Napoleon abdicated unconditionally after losing Paris, though initially he attempted to abdicate in favour of his son. The Allies permitted him to retain sovereignty over Elba.
In 1815, after Waterloo, he abdicated again, formally naming Napoleon II. This was rejected outright, and the Allies exiled him to Saint Helena, with no privileges of sovereignty.
The army Napoleon mustered in 1815 was not the Grande Armée of earlier years.
Many veterans had been killed or scattered after 1813–1814.
Conscripts were less trained and less motivated.
Equipment and supplies were limited after years of warfare.
This weakened the army’s ability to sustain prolonged campaigning compared to earlier campaigns.
The Congress of Vienna, already in progress before the Hundred Days, finalised Europe’s post-war settlement after 1815.
It restored monarchies displaced by Napoleon.
It redrew boundaries to balance power, aiming to prevent future French expansion.
It created mechanisms such as the Concert of Europe to manage disputes collectively.
The Congress confirmed Napoleon’s downfall and shaped European politics for decades.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
In which year did Napoleon fight the Battle of Leipzig, also known as the Battle of Nations?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for correctly identifying the year 1813.
No marks for incorrect years or vague answers such as “early 1800s”.
Maximum: 2 marks (1 for accuracy, 1 for clarity).
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two reasons why Napoleon was defeated at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each reason explained, maximum 6 marks.
Candidates should identify and explain any two of the following:
Arrival of the Prussians under Blücher: Napoleon failed to prevent their rejoining the battle, creating overwhelming Allied numbers. (1 mark for identification, 2 marks for explanation).
Strong defensive position of Wellington’s army: Use of the ridge and fortified positions such as Hougoumont and La Haye Sainte blunted French attacks. (1+2 marks).
French tactical errors: Ney’s premature cavalry charges and Napoleon’s misjudgements weakened French chances. (1+2 marks).
Exhaustion and inexperience of parts of the French army: Less experienced troops compared poorly with the veteran Allied forces. (1+2 marks).
Maximum 6 marks: two well-explained reasons.
Partial explanations or vague statements (e.g. “the Allies were stronger”) receive only 1 mark each.
