OCR Specification focus:
‘the Mezzogiorno; relations with the Church; the policies of Trasformismo.’
The Mezzogiorno and relations with the Church illustrate the challenges Italy faced after unification. Economic disparity, political instability, and cultural conflict shaped national development.
The Mezzogiorno after Unification
Regional Division
The Mezzogiorno (southern Italy, including Sicily and Naples) became a symbol of Italy’s uneven unification. The north developed more rapidly with industry, infrastructure, and trade links, while the south remained agriculturally based and impoverished.
Locator map highlighting the Mezzogiorno macro-region against the rest of Italy. It anchors discussion of southern regional identity, economic disparity and political integration after 1861. The clean styling avoids clutter, keeping attention on the south–north contrast. Source
Land ownership was concentrated in the hands of wealthy elites, known as the latifundisti, who exploited peasants.
Agriculture was largely subsistence-level, dependent on outdated farming techniques.
Illiteracy rates in the south were much higher than in the north, limiting social mobility and reinforcing divisions.
Economic Problems
The south lagged behind because:
Lack of investment in infrastructure compared with Piedmont or Lombardy.
Harsh taxation policies imposed by the new Italian state, which burdened the poor.
Limited railways and poor road connections, isolating southern communities.
Widespread disease, such as malaria, which reduced productivity and life expectancy.
Brigandage: Armed resistance movements in the south, often involving former soldiers, peasants, and criminals who opposed the new Italian state after 1861.
The Brigands’ War
Following unification, opposition in the south led to the Brigands’ War (1861–1865). This was not just common banditry but reflected genuine resentment against northern dominance.
Map of southern provinces affected by post-unification brigandage, 1860–1870; hatched zones show areas subjected to the Pica Law’s extraordinary measures (1863–65). The provincial labelling clarifies the geography behind rural resistance and state responses. Extra topographic and place-name detail is present but supports precise localisation. Source
Many peasants felt betrayed by unification, as their hopes for land reform were ignored.
Harsh military repression by Piedmontese forces deepened hostility.
The conflict underlined the “Southern Question” — the political and social problem of integrating the Mezzogiorno into a unified Italy.
Relations with the Catholic Church
The Papacy and the Roman Question
Relations between the new Italian state and the Catholic Church were extremely tense. The Pope, Pius IX, rejected the legitimacy of the new state after losing the Papal States in 1870.
Map of Italy (published 1903) with the former States of the Church outlined in red, clarifying the core territory contested in the Roman Question after 1870. While produced later, it accurately delineates the area whose annexation shaped Church–state relations. Source
The Roman Question: The dispute between the Papacy and the Italian state after 1870 over sovereignty, legitimacy, and the Pope’s refusal to recognise the Kingdom of Italy.
Key points:
Pius IX issued the ‘Syllabus of Errors’ (1864), condemning liberalism, nationalism, and modernism.
The Church instructed Catholics not to participate in Italian politics through the policy of Non Expedit (meaning “it is not expedient”), which discouraged voting in elections.
The Papacy saw itself as a prisoner in the Vatican, refusing reconciliation until the Lateran Treaty of 1929.
Social Impact of the Rift
The Church remained influential in rural areas, particularly in the south, where priests shaped local opinion.
The alienation of the Church meant that the Italian state lacked legitimacy in the eyes of many devout Catholics.
This contributed to a sense of division between the state and society.
Trasformismo
Origins of Trasformismo
In the late 19th century, Italy’s politics were marked by Trasformismo, a system of flexible parliamentary alliances rather than rigid party divisions.
Trasformismo: A political system in Italy where governments were formed by making shifting coalitions and compromises, often involving corruption and patronage, rather than clear ideological divisions.
Features of Trasformismo
Politicians often prioritised maintaining power over pursuing reform.
Alliances were created through negotiation, favour-trading, and at times outright bribery.
Governments lacked stability, as coalitions frequently shifted.
This alienated many ordinary Italians, who saw parliament as corrupt and ineffective.
Impact on National Unity
Trasformismo failed to address pressing issues such as poverty in the Mezzogiorno or the unresolved Roman Question.
The lack of strong parties or ideology weakened democracy, leaving room for regionalism and discontent.
It reflected Italy’s fragile political culture in the decades after unification, further undermining public trust in the state.
Interconnection of Themes
The Mezzogiorno, relations with the Church, and Trasformismo were deeply interlinked:
The state’s failure to resolve the “Southern Question” demonstrated the weakness of governments built on Trasformismo.
Alienation of the Catholic Church deprived Italy of a unifying cultural and spiritual institution.
Together, these issues contributed to the fragility of Italian nationhood by 1896, leaving many Italians feeling excluded from the national project.
FAQ
Southern resistance stemmed from distrust of northern officials, who were often seen as outsiders imposing heavy taxation and military conscription.
Peasants felt unification had failed to deliver land reform or economic opportunity. Instead, reforms often benefitted the elites and latifundisti, leaving rural communities more marginalised than before.
Efforts were limited and often ineffective.
Railways were extended, but much slower than in the north.
Tax burdens were increased, worsening poverty rather than solving it.
Agricultural development schemes rarely reached the poorest farmers, leaving structural inequality untouched.
In rural communities, priests remained central figures in daily life, guiding education, festivals, and moral authority.
The Church provided continuity and identity in areas where the Italian state was seen as remote and oppressive. This influence meant that the Church often acted as an informal opposition to government authority.
In the south, Trasformismo appeared as a system where local elites gained benefits while ordinary peasants saw no improvements.
Because the region already lagged economically, corruption and patronage reinforced perceptions that politics was detached from real needs, further alienating southern Italians.
Non Expedit barred Catholics from voting, weakening popular participation in elections.
This policy particularly undermined legitimacy in the south, where Catholicism shaped community life. It contributed to low voter turnout and reinforced the idea that the Italian state lacked true moral or spiritual authority
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks):
What was the ‘Roman Question’ in post-unification Italy?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying that it was a dispute between the Italian state and the Papacy.
1 mark for explaining that it arose after the annexation of the Papal States in 1870, with the Pope refusing to recognise the legitimacy of the new Kingdom of Italy.
Question 2 (6 marks):
Explain two ways in which the Mezzogiorno presented challenges to the Italian state after unification.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks for each way explained (max 6 marks).
Economic underdevelopment:
1 mark for identifying the south as agriculturally backward.
1 mark for mentioning poor infrastructure or land ownership concentrated in latifundisti.
1 mark for explaining how this deepened inequality with the north.
Brigandage and unrest:
1 mark for identifying brigandage/armed resistance.
1 mark for noting it reflected peasant resentment at lack of land reform.
1 mark for explaining that it required harsh repression and undermined unity.
