OCR Specification focus:
‘Italy’s relations with the other European powers; colonial expansion’
Italy after unification sought recognition and influence among European powers. Its foreign policy and colonial ventures reveal ambitions for prestige, stability, and international status.
Italy’s Relations with Other European Powers
Relations with France
France remained both a rival and occasional ally for Italy during the late 19th century.
French occupation of Rome before 1870 had been a major obstacle to unification. After the withdrawal of French troops during the Franco-Prussian War, Italy annexed Rome.
Relations cooled in the 1880s as both nations pursued colonial ambitions in North Africa.
France’s occupation of Tunisia in 1881, an area long seen by Italy as within its sphere of influence, humiliated Italian foreign policy and fuelled bitterness. This event is often considered a catalyst for Italy’s subsequent diplomatic realignments.
Relations with Austria-Hungary
Austria had been Italy’s chief enemy during the wars of independence. However, by the 1880s Italy sought to normalise relations.
Both powers were bound together in the Triple Alliance (1882), a defensive agreement with Germany. Italy’s alliance with Austria was awkward, as many Italians still aspired to reclaim irredentist territories (Trentino, South Tyrol, and Istria) under Austrian rule.
Tensions remained, but the alliance was seen as a strategic necessity to protect Italy from French aggression.
Central Europe, 1882. A contemporary map situating Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy at the moment the Triple Alliance was formed. It supports discussion of Italy’s security alignment without adding post-1896 developments. Source
Relations with Germany
Germany, under Bismarck, encouraged Italy’s entry into the Triple Alliance, partly to encircle France.
Relations with Germany were generally positive, as Germany was not a colonial rival in the Mediterranean and offered diplomatic backing.
German support lent Italy credibility on the European stage, though Germany primarily valued Italy as a secondary partner in its balance-of-power strategy.
Relations with Britain
Britain and Italy shared some common interests in the Mediterranean.
Britain’s naval supremacy meant Italy often sought good relations rather than rivalry.
Britain welcomed Italian influence in the Red Sea region, particularly as a counterweight to French ambitions. However, Britain remained cautious about committing to Italy’s more aggressive colonial aspirations.
Relations with Russia
Russia had limited direct involvement with Italy but opposed Austria-Hungary, making its stance diplomatically significant.
Italy occasionally explored friendly contacts with Russia to balance the awkward alliance with Austria, though no formal alliance was achieved.
Colonial Expansion
Motivations for Expansion
Italy’s pursuit of colonies was motivated by:
National prestige: To be seen as a “great power” alongside Britain, France, and Germany.
Economic needs: Colonies were expected to provide markets for Italian goods and opportunities for emigration.
Strategic positioning: Control of the Red Sea and North African coasts was linked to Mediterranean influence.
Irredentism: The belief that territories inhabited by ethnic Italians but ruled by other states (notably Austria-Hungary) should be incorporated into the Kingdom of Italy.
North African Setbacks
Italy’s attempt to gain Tunisia ended in failure when France seized it in 1881.
This humiliation strengthened Italian determination to seek colonies elsewhere.
Expansion in East Africa
Italy turned its attention to the Horn of Africa.
In 1882, Italy purchased the port of Assab from a private company, beginning its presence in Eritrea.
By 1889, Italy had expanded its foothold, declaring Eritrea and later Italian Somaliland as colonies.
“Carta della colonia Eritrea e dell’Abissinia”, 1898. The map locates Italian Eritrea alongside Ethiopia, clarifying Italy’s foothold in the Horn of Africa. Source
Relations with Local Powers
Italy faced resistance from local rulers and populations.
Attempts to expand into Ethiopia led to the signing of the Treaty of Wuchale (1889) with Emperor Menelik II, which became a source of controversy.
Italy claimed the treaty made Ethiopia an Italian protectorate, but Menelik disputed this interpretation.
The Defeat at Adwa (1896)
Italy invaded Ethiopia in 1895, seeking to enforce its claim of control.
At the Battle of Adwa (1896), Italian forces suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of Menelik II’s army.
Italian dispositions and early movements at Adwa, 1 March 1896. The map traces Baratieri’s planned advances, helping to explain how Italian columns became exposed to coordinated Ethiopian counter-attacks. Source
Consequences of Colonial Failures
The defeat damaged Italy’s international reputation, exposing its weakness compared to established powers.
Domestically, the loss provoked political crisis, contributing to the resignation of Crispi’s government.
Despite this, Italy retained Eritrea and Somaliland, maintaining a foothold in East Africa.
The Triple Alliance and Italy’s Position in Europe
Formation of the Alliance (1882)
Italy joined Germany and Austria-Hungary in the Triple Alliance.
This move was largely defensive, designed to protect Italy from French aggression after the Tunisian crisis.
Significance of the Alliance
Italy gained a measure of security and diplomatic recognition.
However, the alliance was fragile due to Italy’s lingering hostility towards Austria.
Italian governments often sought to balance alliance commitments with independent foreign policy manoeuvres.
Italy’s Great Power Ambitions
Italy’s rulers aspired to elevate the country to the rank of a great power.
Success in diplomacy and colonial ventures was central to this goal, but frequent setbacks exposed the gap between ambition and capacity.
Italy’s limited industrial base, fragile economy, and political instability hindered sustained great power status.
Key Themes for Students
Italy’s foreign policy was shaped by insecurity, ambition, and rivalry, especially with France.
The Triple Alliance symbolised both Italy’s integration into European diplomacy and its unresolved tensions with Austria.
Colonial expansion reflected Italy’s desire for prestige, but the Adwa defeat highlighted its weakness compared to other powers.
Italian diplomacy in this period reveals the contrast between aspiration and reality in the country’s emergence on the European stage.
FAQ
Italy had long viewed Tunisia as a natural area for expansion due to its proximity and a significant Italian settler community already living there.
When France occupied Tunisia in 1881, Italy’s diplomatic weakness was exposed, and it showed how easily a stronger power could outmanoeuvre Italian ambitions.
The event deepened Italian resentment towards France and pushed Italy towards the Triple Alliance as a defensive measure.
Crispi, prime minister during the 1880s and 1890s, was a strong supporter of colonial expansion.
He sought colonies to elevate Italy’s status as a European power.
Crispi was instrumental in pushing for expansion in East Africa, particularly Eritrea and Ethiopia.
His aggressive policies culminated in the Adwa disaster of 1896, which forced his resignation and damaged Italy’s prestige.
The 1889 treaty existed in two versions:
Italian version: Suggested Ethiopia accepted Italian protection, making it a de facto protectorate.
Amharic version: Allowed Ethiopia to use Italian diplomatic channels but did not make it subordinate.
This mistranslation (or manipulation) created tension. When Italy tried to enforce its interpretation, Emperor Menelik II rejected it, leading directly to the conflict that ended at Adwa.
The Ethiopian victory was exceptional at a time when most African resistance to European imperialism failed.
It preserved Ethiopian independence, making it a symbol of anti-colonial resistance.
The defeat embarrassed Italy and showed the limits of its military capability.
Globally, it inspired other movements and highlighted the vulnerabilities of European powers in colonial warfare.
Italy’s inability to establish a strong colonial empire in the 19th century left its leaders insecure about international standing.
Italy sought closer ties with stronger powers, relying heavily on the Triple Alliance.
Failures reinforced a sense of “mutilated ambition,” where Italy was seen as a lesser power compared to Britain or France.
This insecurity shaped later efforts at expansion, making future governments eager to redeem Italy’s prestige through more aggressive imperial ventures.
Practice Questions
Question 1 (2 marks)
In which year did Italy join the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary?
Mark Scheme:
1 mark for identifying the correct year: 1882.
No marks for an incorrect year or vague answer (e.g., “1880s” would not gain credit).
Question 2 (6 marks)
Explain two reasons why Italy pursued colonial expansion in the late nineteenth century.
Mark Scheme:
Up to 3 marks per developed reason.
Award 1 mark for identifying a valid reason, 1 additional mark for some explanation, and a further mark for clear development or use of relevant example.
Possible valid reasons:
National prestige: To match the status of established European powers (1). Italy sought to prove itself as a great power (1). The conquest of Eritrea and attempts in Ethiopia were designed to demonstrate this ambition (1).
Economic motivations: To secure markets and opportunities for Italian goods (1). Colonies were also seen as outlets for surplus population through emigration (1). Italian settlement in Eritrea and Somaliland was part of this aim (1).
Strategic positioning: To strengthen influence in the Mediterranean and Red Sea (1). Italy sought ports such as Assab to increase its naval presence (1). This supported its security concerns against rivals like France (1).
Maximum 6 marks: Two fully developed reasons each worth 3 marks.
